THE ENDLESS FRONTIER A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush Direct lie Office of Scient^ Research and Depehpment July 1945 UiAei Scsies GcrvermEkei]^ PriimjQts O&ce Wssiiijagton : 1945 TABLE OF CONTENTS l^tiapter Pose XiCtter of Trojismittal. t President Roosevelt Letter vii Summary of the Report.. 1 1. Introduction: Scientific Progress is Essential - 5 Science is a Proper Concern of Co verimiept, 6 Government Relations to Science— Past and F uture- 6 Freedoni of Inquiry Must be I^eserved 7 2. The War Against Disease: In War .8 In Peace,,, *8 Unsolved Problems 8 Broad and Basic Studies N eeded 9 Coordinated Attack on Special Problems, 9 Action is N ecessary 10 3. Science and the Public Welfare: Relation to National Security 12 Science and Jobs 1. 13 The Importance of Basic Research 13 Centers of Basic Research • 14 Research Within the Government 15 Industrial Research 16 International Exchan^ of Scientific Information. . 16 The Special Need for federal Support 17 The Cost of a Program 17 4. Renewal of our Scientific Talent: Nature of the Problem 18 A Note of Warning 18 The Wartime Deficit 18 Improve the Quality 19 Remove the Barriers 20" The Generation in Uniform Must Not be Lost 20 A Program 20 A Problem of Scientific RTOonversion: EflPects of Mobilization of Science for War 22 Security Restrictions Should be Lifted Promptly. . 22 Need for Coordination 23 A Board to Control Release 23 Publication Should be Encouraged 23 The Means to the End: N ew Responsibiliti^ for Government 25 The Mechanism 25 Five Fundamentals — 26 Chapter Pase 6. The Means to the End— Continued. Military Research 27 Nationw Research Foundation 28 I. Purposes.. 28 11. Members 28 III. Organization 29 IV. Functions 29 V. Patent Policy 31 VI. Special Authority 32 VII. Budget 33 .Action by Congress 33 Appendices 1. Committees Consulted 37 2. R^^rt of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W. Palmar, Chairman 40 3. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public Wdfare, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chaimoan 65 4. Report of the Committee on DiscoTery and Develop- mott of Sdentific Talent, Mr. Henry Allen Moe, Ouuiman 128 5. BMwrt of the Committee on Publication of Scientific Informaiicm, Dr. Irvin ^evrart, Chairman 178 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Office of Scieotific Research and Development 1530 P Street, NW* Washington 25, D. C. July 5, 1945. Dear Mr. President: In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested my recommendations on the following points: (1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war effort to scientific knowledge? (2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related science? (3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activities by public and private organizations? (4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a levd comparable to what has been done during the war? It is dear from Pr^dmt Roosevelt’s letter that in speaking of science he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Pregreas in other fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is likewise im|>ortant; but the program for science presented in my report warrants immediate attention. In seeking answers to President Roosevelt’s questions I have h^ the assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise in respect to these subjects. The committees have given these matters the serious attention they deserve; indeed, they have regarded this as an opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the coun^ with reference to scientific r^earch. They have had many meeting and have submit!^ formal reports. I have b^n in dose touch with the work of the committees and with their members thron^ont. I have examined al of the data they a^mbled and the suggmtions tiiey submitted on the points raised in Prudent Boose- It’s letter. Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts, oondusions, and rTOomm@adatk>ns are based on the findings of the committee which have studied these questions. Since my refwrt is nec^^wraly biid, I am indiniffig as ^pendie^ the fuB reporte of tiie committees. A single meehanisni for implementing the recommendations of the st*veral committers is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I hare departed somewhat from the specific recommendations of the eommittees, but I ha%"e since been assured that the plan I am proposing is fully acceptable to the committee members. The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science offers a largely unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for his tasK. The rewards of sndh exploration both for the Nation and the individnd are great. Scientific progress is ohe essential key to our security as a nation, to our better health, to more jobs, to a higher skyad^ of living, and to our cultural progress. Respectfully yours, ' (s) V. Bush, Director. The Presibeot of the United StjItes, The White House, Washhigtoti, D. C. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELTS LETTER The White House Washington, D. C. November 17, 19U Dear Dr. Bush: The Office of Scientific Research and Develop* ment, of which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment of team-work and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and in applying existing sciratific knowledge to the solution of the technical problems paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in the utmost secrecy and carried on without public recognition of any kind: but its tangible results can be found in the communiques coming in from the batUefronts all over the world. Some day the full story of its achievements can be told. There is, however, no reason why the lessons to be found in this pperiment cannot be profitably employed in times of peace. The information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and by the thousands of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be used in the daja of peace ahead for the improvement of the national health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and the betterment of the national standard of living. It is with that objective in mind that I would like to have your recommendations on the following four major points: First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made during our war efltort to scientific knowdedge? The diffusion of such knovrledge shoiud help us stimulate new enterprises, provide jobs for our returning servicemen and other workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the national well-being. Second: With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related science? The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives l(»t by us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations. Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activiti^ by public and private oigmizations? The proper roles of public and of private research, and their interrdation, should be carefully considered. Fowih: Can an effective pri^ram be proposed for discovmi^ and devdoping sdentific talent in Ammcan youth so that the continuing VI fttlure of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparmble to what has been done during the war? New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fullex and more fruitful life. I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with your a^ciates and othem, you can let me have your considered judgment on th»e matters as soon as convenient — reporting on each when you are ready, rather than waiting for completion of your studi« in all* Very sincerely yours, (s) Franklin D. Roosevelt. Dr. Vannevar Bush, Office of Scientific Research and Development, Wtehingion, D. C. SCIENCE— THE ENDLESS FRONTIER “New frontiers of the mind are before tis, and if they are {pioneered with the same vision, bold- ness, and drive with which we have wraged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful em- ployment and a fuller and more fruitful hfe/' — Fkakkun D. Koosevelt. November 17, 19U. IX SUMMARY Cf THE REPORT SCfENTIflC PROGRESS IS ESSE Propess m the war gainst disease depeads apoa a flow of mw scientific knowledge. Kew products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, end the application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarlj, our defense against a^ession demands new knowle^e so that we can develop new and improved weapons. Tiik eeeentim, new knowl- edge can be obtained only through basic scientific research. &ience con be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scien- tific progress no amount of achievement in other directioius can insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world For tHe War Against Disease We haTe taken strides in the wtr a^inst disease. TIte death rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49 to 65 years, largely as a consequence of the" reduction in the death rates of infants and children. jBut we are far from the goal. Tlie annual deaths from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of American lives lost in battle durii^ this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut fdiort the useful lives of our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill and their care costs the public over $17»5.000,000 a rear. Clearly much illom remains for which adequate means of prevention and ctire are not yet knowm. The responsibility for bask* research in medicine and the under- lying sciences, so essential to progress in tlie war against djscase, falls .prinuiriiy upon the medical sclicnds an<! universitifs. Yet we find that the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical schools and universities. largely endowment income, founda- tion grants, and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate proepeet of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress in medicine w^hich has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial support to basic medical r^ctrch in the medi- cal schools and in universiti^. For Our National Security Thf bitter and dangerous battle against tbe U-boat was a battle of scientific techuiquea-^and our margin of success was danproiisly cmaU. The new eyes which radar has supplied «sn sometimcB be blinded by new scientific devdopments. v-2 wae coimtered only by capture of the launching sites. We cannot again rely on out aUlee to herfd the enemy while we straggle to catch np. There must be more— and more adequate- military research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scien- tists continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to national security which they have made so effectively during the war. This can best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress, and the clear power to initiate military research which wiU supiSement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy. And for the Public Welfare One of our Lopes is that after the war there will be full employ- ment. To reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the American people must be released- To create more jobs we must make new and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new, vigorous enterprises. But new products and processes are not bom full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new concep- tions which in turn result from basic scientific research. Basic scientific research is scientific capital. Moreow, we cannot any longer depend upon Europe as a major source of tms scientific capital. Clearly, more and better scientific research is one essential to the achievem^t of our goal of full employment. How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty of men and women trained in science, for npon them depends jk)th the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These institutions provide the environment which is most conducive to the creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most research in iadustry and in Government involves application of existing scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges, universities, and a few research institutes that devote most of their research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge. Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for the colle^ and touversiti^ increased from $20,000,000 to $31,- 000,000, whne those for the research institutes declined from $5,200,- to $4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, univer- siti®, and r^arch institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing de- mands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, ^ their basic research should be strengthened by use of public funds. For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, ap- plied research both in Government and in iadustry must be vigorous. To improve the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps ^ould be t^en to modify the procedures for recruiting, classi- fying, and compensating scientific personnel m order to reduce the pi^ent handicap of govenunental scientific bureaus in competing with industiy and the universiti^ for top-grade scientific talent. To pro- vide coordination of the common scientific activities of these govem- menfeal ag^cies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science Advisory Board shoxdd be created to advise the executive and legis- lative branches of Government on these matters. The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific talent. In addition, the Government should provide suit- able incentives to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of present uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the deductibility of research and development expenditures as current chaises against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent sys- tem so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily^ on small industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause the benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize new scientific knowledge. WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT The responsibility for the\creation of new"" scientific knowledge — and for most of its application — crests on that small body of men and women who xmderstand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly qualified and trained scientists exploring it. The^deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, would ha^re received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is esti- mated that the deficit of those obtaining advanced d^rees in these fields will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 — for it takes at least 6 years from college entry to achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent in science or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific knowledge and its application in the war against disease, and the development of new products and new industries, is the number of trained scientists available. The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buy- ing higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circum- stance of family fortune, determines who shall receive higher educa- tion in science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of scientific activity. The Government should provide a reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in American youth. The plans should be designed to attract into science only that proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in relation to the other needs of the nation for high abiliti^. Including Those in Uniform The most immediate prc^pect of making up the deficit in scientific personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in uni- form. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of high- school graduates none would complete graduate studies before 1951. The Armed Service should comb tiieir records for men who, prior to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those too remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possi- bk, to duty »fc iBetitatieug befe overseas where they ean continue their scientific education. Moreovei', the Services should see that those wilo stady hs¥0 tkd benefit of tb@ latest sciontific informihtioG raiulting from fiioa^cb during tb^ wa^. THE LID MUST BE LIFTED tThlle most of tbe war research has involved the application of earing sckntific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic Ti^earw, tibere has been accumulated, a vast amount of information relating to riie application of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used by indi^tiy. It is also needed fern teaching in the colleges and universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of this information must remain secret, but most of it should be made public as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. ^ To select that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its release, and delinitelj to encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy, and civilian scientific members should be promptly ^ta&lished- _ . . , ^ ^ . A PROGRAM FOR ACTION The Government should accept MW respousibiliti^ for promoting the flow of new scientific knowledge and the deteiopmettt of scientific talent in our youth. These fespor^bilities are the proper concern of the Government, for they vitally affect otir health, our joba, and our national security. It is in keeping ali^ with baeic United States policy that the Goteminent should foster the opening of new frontiers and this is the modem way to do it. For many years the Govern- ment has wisely supported research in the agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support- ; hould be extended to other fields. The effectiye discharge of these now r^ponsibilities will require the full attention of some oyer-aU agency devoted to that purpose. There is not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its funda.froM Congri^ an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the cofl^eS, universities, and research institutes, both in medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research on new weapows for both Services, or adapted to administer- ing^ prMrtm of sdrttCe scholarships and fellowships. Therefore f recommend that a now agency for these purposes be ^tablished. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad interest and experience, havir^ an understanding of the peculiarities of scientific rfSearch and scientific education. It should have stability of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved ami Shoidd l^vo internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of to itetitetioTO m which it is carried on. It shouM be f^y to tiie Presidelit and through him to the Cosgresei M ite prc^i^.. J^rly Ob fecfirnimendationS' is imp^ativO if nfttiOn mi®^' til® chaflen^ o4 scMMe in the CrUrial- years a^eid. On the Wiidewi wilh^whiA W® jerienoe to t^r in the war against disease, in tike of new uSdaBtoei,' md m the stinM^themng of Om i^»«d Wm^ dipeiiii in larpi ^^^nre our futem a nafciom Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Scientific Prosress Is Essential Wa all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meaiJt to our grievously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war — the countless lives it has saved — the incalculable suffering which its use has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this nation made this achievement possible. Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing the United Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driv'ing the Japanese steadily back from their island bastions. Again it was painstaking scientific research over many years that made radar possible. What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peace- time Saturday night which are filled because new products and new industries have provided jobs for countless Americana. Science made that possible, too. In 1939 millions of people were employed in industries which did not even exist at the close of the last war — radio, air conditioning, rayon and other synthetic fibers, and plasties are examples of the products of these industries. But these things do not mark the end of progress — they aJe but the be^nning if we make full use of our scientific resources. New manufacturing industries can be started and many older industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we continue to study nature’s laws and apply new knowledge to practical purposes. Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific re- search. Plants which are more resistant to disease and, are adapted to short growing seasons, the prevention and cure of livestock dis- eases, the control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved agricultural practices, all stem from painstaking scientific research. 'Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs, higher wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for recreation, for study, for learning how to live without the deadening drudgery which has been the burden of the common man for ages past. Advances in science will also bring higher standards of living, will lead to the prevention or cure of diseases, will promote conservation of our limited national resources, and wifi a^ure means of defense against aggression. But to achieve these objectives— to secure a high level, of employment, to- maintain a position of world leadership— the fiow of new scientific knowledge must b© both continuous and sub- stantial. Our population, increasod from 75 million to 130 million between 1900 and 1940. In some countries comparable increases nave been accompanied by famine. In this country the increase has been accom- panied by more abundant food supply, better hving, more leisure, longer life, and better health. This is, largely, the product of three factors— the free play of initiative of a vigorous people under demo- cracy, the heritage of great natural wealth, and the advance of science and its application. . • i • i , Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and economic’ills. It can be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific progress no amount of achievement in other direc- tions can insure our health, prosperity , and security as a nation in the modem world. Science Is a Proper Concern of Government It has been basic United States policy that Government should foster the opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper ships and furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have more or less disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in keeping with the American tradition — one which has made the Unit^ States great — that new frontiers shall be made accessible for development by all American citizens. Morwver, since health, well-being, and security are proper con- cerns of Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital inter^t to Government. Without scientific progress the national health would deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not hope for improvement in our standard of living or for an increased number of jobs for our citizens; and without scientific progress we could not have maintained our liberties against tyranny. Govemroent Relations to Science — Past and Future From early days the Government has taken an active interest in scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and Geodetic Survey, iiie Naval Observatory, the Department of Agri- culture, and the Geological Survey w^ established. Through the Land Grant College Acts Ihe Government has supported research in state institutions for more than 80 years on a gradually increasing scale. Since- 1^)0 a lar^ number of scientific agencies have been established within the Federal Government, until in 1939 they numbered more than 40. Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is intermediate in character between the two types of work commonly referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government mentific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of broad national concern, it commonly involves long-term investigation of a fundamental nature. Generally speaking, the scientific agencies of Government are not so concerned with immediate practical objectives as fyre the laboratories of industry nor, on the other hand, are they as free to explore any natural phenomena without regard to possible e<x)nomic applications as are the educational and private research institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid records of achievement, but they are limitoi in function. We liaYe no national policy for science. The Government has only begun to utilize science in the , nation’s welfare. There is no body within the Government charged with formulating or executing a national science policy. There are no standing committees of the Congress devoted to this important subject. Science has been in the wings. It should be brought to the center of the stage — for in it lies much of our hope for the future. There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more support than will come from private sources. These areas — such as research on military problems, agriculture, housing, public health, certain medical research, and research involving expensive capital facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions — should be ad^ vanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception of the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific Kesearch and Development, such support has been meager and intermittent. For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when science needs and deserves increased support from public funds. Freedom of Inquiry Must Be Preserved The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are vigorous and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or elsewhere. Many of the l^ons learned in the war-time application of science under Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Govern- ment is peculiarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the coordination and support of broad programs on problems of great national importance. But we must proceed with caution in carrying over the methods which work in wartime to the very different condi- tions of peace. We must remove the rigid controls which we have had to impose, and recover freedom of inquiry and that healthy com- petitive scientific spirit so necessary for expansion of the frontiers of scientific knowledge. Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom of inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government support of science in accordance with the Five Fundamentals listed on page 26. The study of the momentous questions presented in President Koosevelt’s letter has been made by able committees working dili- gently. This report presents conclusions and recommendations based upon the studies of th^e committees which appear in full as the appendic^. Only in the creation of one over-all mechanism rather than several does this report depart from the specific recommenda- tions of the committees. The members of the committees have reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single mechanism and have found this plan thoroughly acceptable. Chapter 2 THE WAR AGAINST DISEASE In War The death rate for all diseases iii the Army, including the overseas foroes, has been reduced from 14.J per thousaud in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war. Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneumonia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin and the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and im- proved hygienic measur^. Malaria has been controllod. There has been dramatic progress in surgery. The striking advances in medicine during the war have been possible only because we had a large backlog of scientijflc data accumulated through basic research in many scientific fields in the years before the war. In Peace In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has in- creased from 40 to 65 ^^ears largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the death rate from the diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent. Diabetes has been brought undei* control by insulin, pernicious anemia by liver extracts; and the once widespread deficiency diseases have beep much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by accessory food factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances have been made in the early dia^osis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment of the disease. These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the dissem- ination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians and medical services and public health agencies of the country. In this cooperative endeavour the pharmaceutical industry has played an important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and public health ^ups share credit for these achievements; they form interdependent members of a team. Progress in comhsiting diame depends npon an expanding body of new identific knowledge. Unsolved Problems As President Eoosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or two diseases are far in' exc^ of the total number of American lives lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This is our present position despite the fact that in the last three decades notable progress has been made in civilian medicine* The reduction in death rate from diseases of childhood has shifted the emphasis to the middle and o’d age groups, particularly to the malignant diseases and the degenerative processes prominent in later life. Cardiovasculm* disease, including chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and cerebral hemoirh^e, now account for 45 percent of the deaths in the United States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added to these are many maladies (for example, the common cold, arthritis, asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which, though infre- quently fatal, cause incalculable aliSability. ^ Another aspect of tbe chanijing emphasis is the increase of mental diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the IJoited States are mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new mental cases are hospitalized. Notwithstanding great progress in prolonging the span of life and in relief of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and rure are not yet known. While additional physi- cians, hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefulness cannot be attained unless We enlarge our knowledge of the human organism and the nature of disease. Any extension of medical facilities must be accompanied by an expanded program of medical trainiiig and research. Brodd and Basic Studies Needed Discoverlcf^ pertinent to tnedieal progress have often come from remote and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true in the future. It is wholly probable that progresjs in the treatment of cardiovasctilaf disease, renal disease, cancer, and eimilar refractory diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in suh- jects unrelated to those discaeee, and perhaps entirely unexpected by the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, etc., be broadly developed. Progress in the war against disease results from discoveries in remote and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences. Coordinated Attack on Special Problems Penicillin reached our troops in time to save counties lives because the Government coordinated and supported the program of re^eaxch and development on the drug. The development moved from Ih© early laboratory stage to large scale production and Use in a fraction of the time it would have taken without such leadership* ThO search for better anti-malarkls, which proceeded at a moderate tempo for many years, has been accelerated enormomly by Government supj^rt during the war. Oth^ example can be cited in which mescal progress has been simitoly advanced* In achieving these r^ultsl, the Goveri303tt6nt has provided o vci -all coordination and support j it has not dictated how the work snould be done witliin any cooperating Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results iErom basic studies in medicine and the underljdng sciences. The development of such materials and naethods to the point at which they become avaflable to medical practitioners requires teamwork inyolv- ing the medical schools, the science^ departments of univei^ities, Government and the pharmaceutical industry. Government initia- tive, support, and coordmation can be very enective in this develop- moat phase. Govemment initiatiTe and support for the development of newly discovered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time r^uired to bring the benefits to the public.. Action is Necessary The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and universiti^. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing similar attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, and other oimuizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primary obligation of the medical schools and universities is to continue the tramtional function of such institutions, namely, to provide the individual worker with an opportunity for free, untrammeled study of nature, ia the directious and. by the methods suggested by his interests, curiosity, and imagination. The history of medical science teaches clearly the supreme importance of affording the prepared mind complete fre^om for the exercise ofj|initiative. It is the special province of the medical schools and universities to foster medical research in this way — a duty whidb. cannot be shifted to government agencies, industrial organizations, or to any other institutions. 'Where dmical investigations of the human body are required, the m^icaJ schools are in a unique position, because of their close relation- ship to teaching hospitals, to int^xate such investigations with the work of the depaxteents of precfinical science, and to impart new knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the teaching hospitals are especially weli qualified to carry on medical research because of their dose connection wit^ the medical schools, on which they depend for staff and supervision.' Between W<^^ld War I and World War ITthe United States overtook all other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world leader^ip. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal fcancial support from university endowment income, gifts from individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of re- search departments in m^ioal schools has been very uneven, how- avar, and in consequence most of the important work has been done in a few large^ schools. This should be corrected by building up the weafce* institutions, ^^pecially in regions which now have no strong medical r^earch activities. The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely endo^^ment income, foundation grants' and private donations, are diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, research costs have steadily risen. More elabor- 10 ate and expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costly, and the wages of assistants are higher. Industry is only to a limited extent a source of fimds for basic medical research. It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships. The amount which can be effectively spent in the first year shoidd not exceed 5 million dollars. After a program is under way perhaps 20 million dollars a year can be spent effectively. 11 Chapter 3 SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE Relation to National Security In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and dOsBi^Grous bctttic agaiiiist tbe U-boat was a battlo of scion tific t6cb- niques — and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new eyes which radar supplied to our fighting forces quicldy evoked the development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind them. This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques. The V-1 attack on London was finally defeated by three devices developed during this war and used superbly in the field. V-2 was countered only by capture of the launching sites. The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter to the National Academy of Sciences: This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national security: (1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed around new weapons created by scientific and engineering research; (2) the competitive time element m developing those weapons and tactics may be decisive; (3) war is increasingly total war, in which the armed services must be supplemented by active participa- tion of every element of civilian population. To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the research scientists of the country must be called upon to continue in peacetime some substantial portion of those types of contribution to national security w’hich they have made so effectively during the stress of the present war * * There must be more — and more adequate — military research during peacetime. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we stru^le to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the Government can undertake military research; for it must be carried on in secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive. The obligation of Government to support research on military prob- lems is inescapable. Modern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific techniques. Many of the leaders in the development of radar are scientists who before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the atom. While there must be increased emphasis on science in the future training of oflScers for both the Army and Navy, such men cannot be expected to be specialists in scientific research. Therefore a pipfmional partnership between the oflacers in the Services and civilian scientists is needed. The Army and Navy should continue to carry on research and development bn the improvement of current weapons. For many years the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has sup- <2 plem^nted the work of the Army and N^yj by conducting baaic research on the problems of flight. There should now be permanent civilian activity to supplement the research work of the Services in other scientific fields so as to carry on in time of peace some part of the activities of the emergency war-time OflBice of Scientifi.c K^earch and Development. Military preparedness requires a permanent independent, civilian- controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to Initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy* Science and Jobs One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment, and that the production of goods and services will serve to raise our standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal, but it is certain that it can be aciileved only by releasing the full creative and productive energies of the American people. ■ Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making the same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher prices. We will not get aliead in international trade unless we offer new and more attractive and cheaper products. Where will these new products come from? How will We find ways to make better products at lower cost? The answer is clear. There must be a stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels of private and public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and women trained in science and technology for upon them depend both the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement of our goal of fuU employment The Importance of Basic Research Basic research is performed without thoxight of practical ends. It results in general knowledge and an understanding of natuie and ite laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a large number of important practical problems, though it may not give a complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of applied research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist doing basic research may not be at all interested in the practical applications of his work, yet the further progress of industrial develop- ment would eventually stagnate if basic scientific research long neglected. One of the peculiarities of basic science m the variety of paths which lead to productive advance* Many of the m<Mt important dis- coveries have come as a result of e^eriments undertaken with very different purposes in mind* Statistically it is certain that important and highly useful discoveries will tesult from Some fraction of the undertakings in basic science; but ihe results of any one particular investigation cannot be predicted with accuracy. , Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides capital. It creates Ihe fund from wMch the practical appli^tions of knowledge must be drawn. New products and new^ processes do not appear full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn are painstakingly developed by research in the purest realms of science. Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of technological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee me- chanical ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of European scientists, could greatly advance the technical arts. Now the situation is different. A nation which depends upon others for its new basic scientific knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its aimpetitiYe position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill Centers of Basic Research Publicly and privately supported colleges and universities and the endowed research institutes must furnish both the^ new scientific knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are uniquely qualified by tradition and by their special characteristics to carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility of conserving the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of aU kinds. It is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an atmos- phere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of convention, prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they provide the scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and security, as well as a sul]6tantial degree of personal intellectual freedom. All of these factors are of great importance in the development of new knowledge, since much of new knowledge is certain to arouse opposition because of its tendency to challei^e current beliefs or practice. Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own dearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial nec^ity. Satisfacto^ progress in basic science seldom occurs under conditions prevailing in the normal mdustrial laboratory. There are some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is rarely possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom which is so important to scientific discovery- . ^ To serve effectively as the centers of basic research these institu- tions mmt be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scien- tists as teachers and investigators. They must offer research oppor- tunity^ and sufficient compensation to enable them to compete with mdust^ and government for the cream of scientific talent. During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in indus- trial research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a multitude of practical purposes — thus providing new products, new mdustries, new inv^tment opportunities, and millions of jobs. DunM the same period research within Government — again largely applied research — has also been greatly expanded. In the decade from 1930 to 1940 expenditures for mdustrial research increased from $116,000,000 to $240,000,000 and those for scientific research in Government rose from $24,000,000 to $69,000,000. Durng the same period expenditures for scientific r^earch in the colleges and univer- sities increase from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the endows r^earch institute declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500, .000 14 These are the best estiinates available. The figures have been taken from a variety of sources and arbitrary definitions have necessar^‘ been applied, but it is believed that they may be accepted as indicating the following trends: (a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Gov- ernment— almost entirely applied research — have more than doubled between 1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were six times as large as the research expenditures of the colleges, universities, and research institutes, by 1940 they were nearly ten times as large. (b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges and universities increased by one-half during this period, those for the endowed research institutes have slowly declined. If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public funds. Research Within the Government Although there axe some notable exceptions, most research con- ducted within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature. This has always been true and is likely to remaia so. Hence Govern- ment, like industry, is dependent upon the colleges, universities, and research institutes to e^^and the basic scientific frontiers and to furnish trained scientific investigators. Research within the Government represents an important part of our total research activity and needs to be strengthened and ex- panded after the war. Such expansion should he directed to fields of inquiry and service which are of public importance and are not ade- quately carried on by private oi^anizations. The most important single factor in scientific and technical work is the quality of personnel employed. The procedures currently followed within the Government for recruiting, classifying and com- pensatmg such personnel place the Government under a severe handicap in competing with industry and the universities for first-class scientific talent. Steps should be' taken to reduce that handicap. In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous scientific agencies form parts of larger departments has both ad- vantages and disadvantages. But the present pattern is fiirmly established and there is much to be said for it. There is, however, a very real need for some me^ure of coordination of the common scientific activities of these agencies, both as to policies and budgets, and at present no such means exist. A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult with these scientific bureaus and to advise the exeeutive and legis- lative branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies engaged in sdentific research. This board should be composed of disinterested scientists wjio have no connection with the affairs of any Government agency. 15 industrial Research The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to develop scientific talent. ^ The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or at the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits naigfit be better utilized if ^ ^research clinics^* for such enterprises were to be established. Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of research than they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of further study. One of the most important factors afiecting the arnount of industrial research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to this subject wOl affect the rate of technical progress in industry. Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from lack of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs. The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to remove present uncertainties in regard to the deductibility of research and develop-! ment expenditures as current charges against net income. Research is also affected by the patent laws. They stimulate new invention and they make it possible for new industries tc be built around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new jobs and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the strength of the country. n Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have im- paired the ability of small industries to translate new ideas into processes and products of value to the nation. These uncertainties are, in part, attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the operation of the patent system as it presently exists. These uncer" tainties are also attributable to the existence of cert^ abuaes, which have appeared in the use-of patents. The abuses should be oorreoted. They have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit a basically sound system. It is important that the patent ^stem continue to serve the country in the mwner intended by the Cfonstitution, for it has been a vim element in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this nation. The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this subjwt. In addition, a detailed study, with recommendations con- cerning the extent to whidh modifications should be made in our patent laws is currently be^ made under the leadership of the Secretary of Commerce. It is recommended, therefore, that specific action with regard to the patent laws he withheld pending the sub- mission of the report devoted exclusively to that subject. International Exchange of Scientific Inforrnafion International exchange of seientifle information is of growing im- portance, Increasing specialization of science will make it more im- port ant than ever that scientists in thb country keep eontinuaHv abr^t of developments abroad. In additioh a flow of scientifirinfo^ mation constitute one facet of general international accord which should be cultivated. 16 The Govemment can accomplish significant results in several ways: by aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in the official accrechting of American scientists to such gatherings, in the official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country, in making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including translation service, and possibly in the provision of international fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill some of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and inadequate. The Government should take an active role in promoting the inter- national flow of scientific information. Th^ Sp^cidl for Federal Support We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of funda^ mental knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best efforts to the application of such knowledge which has been discovered abroad. In the future we must pay increased attention to discover-^ ing this knowledge for Ourselves particularly since the scientific applications of the future will be more than ever dependent upon such basic knowledge. New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such new impetus can come promptly only from the Govemment. Ex- penditures for research in the colleges, universities, and research in- stitutes will otherwise not be able to meet the additional demands of increased public need for research. Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap. Industry will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge to new products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for that. But basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature. It will not receive the attention it requires if left to industry. For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the a^icultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to other fields. In providing Govemment support, however, we must endeavor to preserve as far as possible the private support of research both in industry and in the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These private sources should continue to carry their share of the financim burden. The Cost of a Program It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of basic research in the colleges, xmiversiti^, and research institutes and for financing important applied research in the public interest, will cost about 10 million doll^yrs at the outset and may rise to about 50 million dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps 5 years. 17 Chapfer 4 RENEWAL OF OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT Nature of the Problem The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests on that small body of men and women who understand the funda- mental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific re- search. While there will always be the rare individual who will rise to the top without benefit of formal education and training, he is the exception and even he might make a more notable contribution if he had the benefit of the best education we have to offer. I cannot im- prove on President Conant's statement that: * In every section of the entire area where the word science may prop- erly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one.‘We shall have rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the number of really first-class men who are engaged in the work in question. * * * So in the last analysis, the future of science in this country will be determined by our basic educational policy.’* A Note of Warning It would be folly to set up a program under which research in the natural sciences and medicine was e^anded at the cost of the social mmoes, himiaiuties, and other studies so essential to national well- being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as foEows: As crtizeiK, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in mind wMe examnmg the quertion before us— the discovery and development of scien- tific tejent— the needs of the whole national welfare. We could not suggest to ..+3 wluch high ability m youth can be put are various and, to a large extent, are dete^ned by social pressures and rewards. When aided by selective pickmg out scientifically talented youth, it is clear that large sums of and feUowships and monetary and other rewafds i^^l proportonate counts might draw into science too large a percentage of the with a result highly detrimental to tlS nitforand to P^ns for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be related to th. any more of it tban science’s proportionate share.” The Wartime Deficit woff loJn qu^ified to take up scientific ^ students over 18, except some MiOTeeimg in Army and Navy programs and a few 4-F s, who have fdlowed an mt^ated scientific wurse of studies. 18 Neither oiir allies nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done any- thing so radical as thus to suspend almost completely their educa- tional activities in scientific pursuits during the war period. Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have turned our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle that there should be no favored classes or special privilege in a time of peril, that all should be ready to sacrifice equally; second, the tenet that every man should serve in the capacity in which Ms talents and experience can best be applied for the prosecution of' the war effort. In general we have held these principles well in balance. In my opinion, however, we have drawn too heavily for^ non- scientific purposes upon the great natural resource which resides in our trained young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the country too many such men have gone into uniform, and their talents have not always been fully utilized. With the exception of those men engaged in war research, aU physically fit students at graduate level have been taken into the armed forces. Those ready for college training in the sciences have not been permitted to enter upon that training. There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and tech- nology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor^s degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding advanced de- grees— that is, young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of carrying on original work — has been estimated as amount- ing to about 17,000 by 1955 in chemistry, engineering, geology, mathematics, physics, psychology, and|the biological sciences. With mountiiig demands for scientists both for teaching and for re- searchy we will enter the post-war period with a serious deficit in our trained scientific personnel. Improve the Quality Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use of our basic human resources and formulate a program which will assure their conservation and effective development. The committee advising me on scientific personnel has stated the following principle which should guide our planning: “If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably not, write you a plan whereby there might be selected for training, which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would be scientific leaders, and we might not bother about any lesser manifestations of scientific ability. But in the present state of knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only those young men and women who will give the top future leadership to science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of high ability selected for development and then successive skimmings of the cream of ability at succ^ive times and at higher levels. No one can select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the top because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, leadership. There are brains and character, strength and health, happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one knows what else^hat must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus. “We think we probably would not, even if we were aU-wise and all-knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific leadership at one stroke. We think as we think because we are not interested in setting up an elect- We think it much the best plan, in this constitutional Republic, that oppor- tunity be held out to all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can tetter themselves. Tim the American way; this is the way the IJnited States has 19 becsome viiat it is. We think it verv important that cireumstanees be su^ that t^ei© be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intelleetnal ambition. We think: it very important that every boy apd girl shall know i^at, if be shows that he has wbat it takes, the skv is the limit. Even if it be shown subsequently that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go further than he would other- wise go if there had been a cefling beyond which he always knew he could not aspire. “By proceeding from point to point and taking sto^ on way, by givfng further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of fjMher opportu- nity by giving the most opportunity to those who show themselves continually' developing—this is the way we propose. This is the American way: a man works for what he gets.” Remove the Barriers Highfir education in this country is largely for those who have the mesBS. If those who have the means eoineided entirely with those persons who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of our higher education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great talent among those who fail to attend college for economic reasons. There are talented individuals in every segment of the population, but with few exceptions those without the means of buying higher educa- tion go without it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation — the intelligence of its citizens. If ability, and pot the circumstance of family fortune, is made to determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of sdentific activity. The Generation in Uniform Must Not Be Lost We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the men who would have studied science in the colleges and universities have been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their studies before they went to war. Others with capacity fgr education went to war after finishing high school. The most imme- diate prospect of making up some of the deficit in scientific persounel IS by salvaging scientific tajent from the generation in unifopn. For even if we ^ould start now to train tie current crop of high scJioqI graduates, it would be 1951 before they would complete graduate studies and be prepared for effective scientific research. Tius &et underlines the necessity of salvaging potential scientists in uniform. The Armed Services should comb their records for men whp, prior to or duriiig the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangemeiits, consiateiit with current discharge plana, for ordering those who remain in uniform as soon as militarily possible to duty at lEsMtutions here and overseas where they can continue their sdentfie educatioii. Moreover, they should see that those who study overseas have the benefit of the latest seientifie deTelopments. A Program The wuntiy may be proud of the fact that 9^ po^'cent of boys and girfc of fifth grade age are enrolled in sohopl, hut tihe drop in enroll- ment eJror the fifth grade is |e^ eatisfying.^ For §v§i*y i,O0Q students itt ine nfta grade, fiOO are lost to education before the end of high school, and ^ but 72^ave ceased fonnal edueation brfore eompletidn m of college. While we are concerned primarily \\ith methods of select- ing and educating high school graduates at the college and higher levels, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential talent which is inherent in the present situation. Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not get that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot afford to go on; schools and colleges providing courses equal to their capacity are not availabie locally; business and industry recruit many of the most promising before they have finished the training of winch they are capable. These reasons apply with particular force to science: the road i§ long and expatmire; it extends at least 6 years beyond high school; the percentage of science students who can obtain first-rate training in institutions near home is small. Improvement in the teaching of ^ience is imperative; for students of latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to* high school teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate in- struction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This in- volve improved high school instruction, provision for helping indi- vidual talented students to finish high school (primarily the responsi- bility of the local communities), and opportunities for more capable, promising high school students to go to college. Anything short of this means serious waste of higher education and neglect of human resources. To encourage and enable a larger nnmber of young men and women of ability to take np science as a career, and in order gradually to reduce the deficit of trained scientific personnel, it is recommended that provision be made for a reasonable number of (a) undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced training and fundamental research. The details should be worked ont with reference to the interests of the several States and of the nniversities and colleges; and care should be taken not to impair the freedom of the institutions and individuals concerned. The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would provide 24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellow- ships and would cost about $80,000,000 annually when in full opera- tion. Each year under this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships would be made available to high school graduates, and 300 graduate fellowships would be offered to coU^e graduates. Approximately the scale of allowances provided for under the educational pro-am for returning veterans has been used in estimating the cost of this program. The plan is, further, that all those who receive such scholarships or fellowships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve and be liable to call into the service of the Government, in connection with scientific or technical work in time of war or other national emeigency declared by Confess or proclaimed by the President. Thtis^ in Edition to the general benefits to the nation by reason of the addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, there would be a definite benefit to the nation m having these scientific workers on call in national emei^endes. The Government would be wdl advised to invest the money involved in this plan even if the benefits to the nation were thou^t of solely — ^wMch they are not — in terms of national preparedness. at Chapter 5 A PROBLEM OF SCIENTIFIC RECONVERSION Effects of Mobilization of Science for War We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of our scientists have been fighting the war in the laboratories, in the factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the energi^ of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials and methods, on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated and controlled by the OflSice of Scientffic Research and Development and other Government agencies. like troops, the scientists have been mobilized, and thrown into action to serve their coxmtry in time of emergency. But they have been diverted to a greater extent than is generdly appreciated from the search for answers to the fxmda- menjtal problems — from the search on which human welfare and p:^- r^ depends. This is not a complaint — ^it is a fact. The mobihza^ tion of science behind the lines is aiding the %hting men at the front to win the war and to shorten it; and it has resulted mciden tally in the accumulation of a vast amount of experience and knowle^e of the application of science to particular problems, muc^ of whhm can be put to use when the war is over. Fortunately, this wuntey had the scientists — and the tme — to make this contribution and thm to advance the date of victory. Security Restrictions Should Be Lifted Promptly Much of the information and experience acquired during the war is confined to the ^encies that ^thered it. Except to the extent that military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be spread upon the record for the benefit of the general public. Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Sec- retary of the Navy, most of the results of war-time medical research have been published. Several hundred articles have appeared in the profmional journals; many are in process of publication. The mate- rial still subject to security classification should be released as soon as possible. It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific material shoidd be released as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of the information needed by industry and in education can be released witibout disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and devices. B^cally there is no reason to believe that scientists of oth^ countries will not in time rediscover everything we now know which SI is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific information upon wbicb further advances can readily be made furnishes a sounder foundation for our national security than a policy of restriction which would impede our own progress although imposed in the hope that possible enemies would not catch up with us. During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as to what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time, the Office of Scientific Eesearch and Development has been obliged to enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by aU concerned that it was an emergency measure whidi prevented the continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific effort. Our abUity to overcome possible future enemies depends upon scientific advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of knowledge than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge now in our possession. Need for Coordination Id planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research has gone forward under many axispices — the Army, the Navy, the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the Government, educational institutions, and inany industrial organiza- tions. There have been munerous cases of independent discovery of the same truth in different plac^. To permit the release of informa- tion by one agency and to continue to restrict it elsewhere would be unfair in its effect and would tend to impair the morale and efficiency of scientists who have submerged individual interests in the controls and restrictions of war. A part of the information now classified which should be released is possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such information should be coordinated with o.ur allies to minimize danger of international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled release. A Board to Control Release The ^ency responsible for recommending the release of information from military classification should be an iimy, Navy, civilian body, well grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to advise the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It should, moreover, have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and practical decisions. To satisfy these consideratioiis I recommend the establishment of a Board, made np equally of scientists and military men, whose fnnctimi would be to pass nj^n the declassification and to control the release for publication of scientific information which is now classified. Poyicafion Should Be Encouraged The rdease of information from security r^ulations is but one phase of the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material 3 23 and ita publication in a form and at a pric6 wbieli will facilitate dissemination and use. In the case of the OfiBce of Scientific Research and Development, amngements have been inada for the preparar- tion of manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are still as- sembled and in possession of the records, as soon as the pressure for production of result® for this war has begun to relax. We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with CTeat promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable format. We should also get it to the men studying overseas so that they will know what has happened in their absence. It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facil- itate the preparation and publication Of reports be adopted forthwith by iill agencies, governmental and private, possessing scienfffic informatima released from secmity controL Chapter 6 THE MEANS TO THE END New Responsibilities for Oovernment One I^on is clear from the reports of the several committees attached gs appendices. The Federal Govermnent should accept new responsibiliti^ for promoting the 'creation of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our youth. The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this re^rd are fully endorsed. In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made available. We have given much thought to the question of how plans for the use of Federal funds may be arranged so that such funds will not drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize that effect, but we do not think that it can bp completely avoided. We submit, however, that the nation’s need for more and better scientific research is such tfiat t|ie ripk must be accepted. It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There should be a focal 'point within the Government for a concerted program of asisting scientific research conducted outside of Government. Such an agency should furnish the funds needed to support basic research in the colleges and universities, should coor- dinate where possible research programp on matters of utmost impor- tance to the national welfare, should fomulate a national policy for the Government toward science, should spepsqr the interchange of scientific infonpation among scientists and laboratories both in this country and abroad, and should ensure that the incentives to research in industry and the universities are maintained. AH of the commit- tees advising on these matters agree on the necessity for such .an agency. Th? Mechanistn There are within Government departments many groups whose interests are primarily those of scientific research. Notable example are found within the Departinents of Agriculture, Commeapce, Interior, and the Federal Security Agency. These groups are concerned with science as collateral and peripheral to the major problems of th<m Departments. These gmups should remain where they are, and con- tinue to pejffoim th^ present functiens, including the support of agri- S5 cultural research by grants to the Land Grant Colleges and Experiment Stations, since their lai^est contribution lies in applying fundamental knowledge to the special problems of the Departments within which they are ^tablished. By the same token these ^oups cannot be made the repository of the new and large responsibilities in science which belong to the Government and which the Government should accept. The recom- mendations in this report which relate to research within the Govern- ment, to the release of scientific information, to clarification of the tax laws, and to the recovery and development of our scientific talent now in uniform can he implemented by action within the existing structure of the Government. But nowhere in the Governmental structure receiving its funds from Congress is there an agency adapted to supplement^ the support of basic research in the universities, both in medicine and the natural sciences; adapted to supporting r^arch on new weapons for both Services; or adapted to administer- ing a program of science scholarships and fellowships. A new agency should be established, therefore, by the Congress for the purpose. Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent agency devoted to the support of scientific research and advanced scientific education alone. Industry learned many years that basic research cannot often be .fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to or a subdivision of an operating agency or department. Operating agencies have immediate operating goals and are under constant pres- sure to produce in a tangible way, for that is the test of their value. None of these conditions is favorable to basic research. Research is the e^loration of the unknown and is nec^saiily speculative. It is inhibited by conventional approach^, traditions, and standards. It cannot be satisfactorily conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged and tested by operating or production standards. Basic scientific research should not, therefore, be placed under an operating agency whose paramount concern is anything other than research. Research will dways suffer when put in competition with operations. The decision that there should be a new and independent agency was reached by each of the committees advising in these matters. I am wnvinced that these new functions should be centered in one ^ency. Science is fundamentally a unitary thing. The number of independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical progr^, for example, will come from fundamental advances in diem- istry. ^ J^paration of the sciences in ti^t compartments, as would occur if more than one agency were involved, would retard and not advance scientific knowledge as a whole. Five Fundamentals There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program of Government support for scientific research and education If such support is to be effective and if it is to avoid impairing the very things we seek to foster. These principles are as follows: (1 j Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability of funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be undertaken. ^ (2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed of citizens selected only oh the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research and education. (3) The agency should promote research through contracts or grants to oi^anizations outside the Federal Government. It should not operate any laboratories of its own. (4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, universities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of the r^earch to the institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance. (5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in the institu- tions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion in the allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation proposed herein must be responsibile to the President and the Congress. Only through such responsibility can we maintain the proper relationship between science and other aspects of a democratic system. The usual controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should, of course, apply to the administrative and nscal operations of the Foundation, subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as are necessary to meet the special requirements of research. Basic research is a long-term process — it ceases to be basic if im- mediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments of funds from current appropriations for programs of five years dura- tion or longer. Continuity and stability of the program and its sup- port may be expected from the growing realization by the Congress of the benefits to the public from scientific research, and (6) from the conviction which will grow among those who conduct research imder the auspices of the agency that good quality work wiU be followed by continuing support. Military Research As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a Immanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congr^ and the clear power to initiate military research which will supple- ment and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Apoaj and Navy. ^ As a temporary measure the National Academy of Sciences has established the Research Board for National Security at request of the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. This is highly desirable in order that there may be no interruption in the relations between scientists and military men after the emergency w^ime Office of Sci^tific Research and Development goes out of existence. The Congress is now considering legMation to f>rovide funds for this Board by direct appropriation. I believe that, as a permanent measure, it would he appropriate to to the agency needed to perform the other, functions recommended in this report the r^ponsibilities for civilian-initiated and civilian- wntroUed military research. The function of such a civilian group would be primarily to conduct loi^-range scientific research on mili- proHena® — leaving to the Service research on tihe improvement of exSlang weapons. 27 Some on military problems should be conducted^ in time of peace as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the Army and Navy to train the men^ make available the weapons, and employ the strategy that will bring victory in combat. The Aimed Services can- not be expected to be experts in all of the complicated fields which make it possible for a great nation to fight successfully in total ^ar. There are certain kinds of research — such as research on the improve- ment of existing weapons — ^which can best be done within the military ^tablishment. However, the job of long-range research involving application of the newest scientific discoveries to military needs should be the r»ponsibility of those civilian scientists in the universities and in industry who are best trained to discharge it thoroughly and successfully. It is essential that both kinds of research go forward and that there be the closest liaison between the two groups. Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance between military and other research could thus readily be maintained. The €stablishment of the new agency, including a civilian military research group, should not be delayed by the existence of the R^earch Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor should the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainti^ in regard to the postwar organization of our military departments them- selv^. Clearly, the new agency, includiiig a civilian military research group within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operatioE® to whatever may be the final organization of the military departments^ National Research Foundation It is my judgment that the national interest in soientiSo research and scientific ^ucation can best be promoted by tlie creation of a National Research Foundation. 1. Pur'poses, — The National Research Foundation stould develop and pimmote a national policy for sdientifio research aAd acksaMfic edumtion, dhiouid support b^ic research in nonprofit oiganizations, drould devdlop scitotifio talent m American youth by means of seholarsMps and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise Support iong-ranf® research on military mattes. II. Me7tiber$.—1, Responsibility to the people, through the Presi- dent and the Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine Members, who should be persons not otherwise connected with the Gk)vemment and not representative of any special interest, who should be known as National Research Foundation Members, selected by the President on the basis of their interest in and capacity to promote the purposes of the Foundation. 2. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 years, and nO Member should be digible for immediate reappointment provided he has served a full 4-year term. It should be arranged that the Membia^i first appointed serve terms of such length that at least two Membei^ are apmfinted each succeeding year. 3. The Members should Serve without compensation but should be entitled to their eatpenses incurred in the performance of their duties. 4. The Members should elect their own chairman annually. 5. The chief executive officer of the Foundation should be i director appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction anc supervision of the Foundation: Members (acting as a board), th< director should discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative func- tions of the Fmmdation, The director should receive a salary tfiai is fully adequate to attract an outstandiag man to the post. 6. There should be an administrative office responsible to tb( director to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, pemonnel,^ and similar administrative functions necessary, to the accomplishment oi the purpose of the Foundation. 7. With the exception of the director, the division members, and one executive officer appointed by the director to administer the affairs of each division, all employees of the Foundation should be appointed under Civil Service regulations. III. Organization. — 1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the Foundation the Members should establish several professional Divi- sions to be responsible to the [M embers. At the outset these Divisions should be: a. Division of Medical Research.— r-The function of this Division should be to support medical research. b. Division of Natural Sciences. — The function of this Division should be to support research, in the physical and natural sciences. c. Dmsion of National Defense.-r-lt should be the function of thi$ Division to support long-range scientific research on military matters. d. Division of Sdenti^ Personnel and Education. — It should be thf fimction of this Division to support and to super’^’ise the grant of scholarships and fellowships in science. e. Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration. — This Divir sion should be charged with encouraging the publication of scientific knowledge and promoting international exchange of scientific ior formation, 2. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least five members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In making such appointments the Members shoifid request and consider recommendations from the National Academy of Sciences which should be a$ked to establish a new National Research Foundation nominating committee in order to bring together the recommendar- tions of scientists in all organizations. The chairman of each Division should be appointed by fhe Members of the Foundation, 3. The division Members should be appointed for such terms ap tfie Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reap- pointed at the discretion of the Members. They should receive their expenses and compensation for their servicee at a per diem rate' of, say, $50 while engag^ on busincis of the Foundation, but no division mcniber should receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per year. 4. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include, in addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative desig- nated by the ^cretary of War, and one representative of the Secrer tary of the Navy, who should serve without additional compensation for this duty. W. Fundiom. — 1. The Members of the, Fomdai^ ham th§ f (Mowing fundtonSj pmm^, emd duties : S'llf a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation. b. To ^tablisii and mamtain such offices within the United States, its territori^ and possessions, as they may deem necessary. €, To meet and function at any place within the Umted States, its temtories and po^essions. - , ^ d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services. e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regffiations cany out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and practice of the Foundation. ^ ^ , /. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several Divisions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked for the purpose of specific Divisions, but the Foundation shoidd be left discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds. g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by negotiation without advertising for bids. And with the advice of the National Besearch Foundation Divisions concerned — A. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils, state, regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating the purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof. i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and nonprofit research institutions for support of scientific research. To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or organizations, research on problems related to the national defense. k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations r^earch projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate. l. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences including biology and medicine. m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical in- formation and to further its international exchange. n. To support international cooperation in science by providing financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific societies, and scientific research programs organized on an international basis- 0. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the transition between research and its practical application in industry. 2. The Divisions should be responsible to the Members of the Fanned tionfoT — a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the particular Divisions. b. Recommendation regarding the allocation of research programs among research organizations. c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the Foundation and the organizations selected to carry on the program- ed. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authori- ties in regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and fellowships. e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted imder the auspices of the particular Division and revision of tiie program of support of research. /. Ir^entation of budgets of financial needs for the work of the Division. p. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both govemmentai and private, concerned with the work of the Division. V. Patent Pdieg, — ^The success of the National R^earch Founda- tion in promoting scientific research in this coun^ wili depend to a very laj^e degree upon the cooperation of organizations outside the Government. In making contracts with or gr^ts to such organiza- tions the Foundation should protect the public inter^t adequately and at the same time leave ^e cooperating organization with adequate freedom and incentive to conduct scientific r^earch. The public intent will normally be ad^uately protected if the Government maekfm a roy^ty-free license for govmimental purposes under any imtents resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There ^bould be no obligation on the r^earch institutiem to patent dis- 31 66yeries made &s a result of support from the J'oundation. There should certainly not he any absolute requirement that all rights in such discoveries be assigned to the Goternment, but it should be left to the discretion of the director and the interested Division whether in special cases the public interest requires such an assign- ment, Legislation on this point should leave to the Members of the Foundation discretion as to its patent policy m order that patent afrangements may be adjusted as circumstances and the public inter^t require. tl, Speciai Authoriiy—ln order to insure that men of great com- petence and experience may be designated as Members of the Founda- tion and as members of the several professional Divisions, the legisla- tion creating the Foundation should contain specific authorization so that the Members of the Foundation and the Members of the Divisions may also engage in private and gainful employment, notwithstanding the provisions 6t aiiy other lawS: provided, however, that no compen- sation for such employment is received in any form from any profit- making institution which receives funds under contract, or otherwise, from the Division or Divisions of the Foundation with which the individual is concerned. In normal times, in vie# of the restrictive statutory prohibitions against dual interests on the part of Govern- ment officials, it would be virtuaBy impossible to persuade persons having private employment of any kind to serve the Government in an official capacity. In order, however, to secure the part-time services of the most oompetefifc men as Members of the Foundation and the Divisions, these stringent prohibitions should be relaxed to the extent indicated. Since research is tinlike the procurement of standardized items, which are susceptible to competitive bidding pH fixed specifications, the l^islatioii creating the National Researoh Fotmdation should free the Foundation from the obligation to place ite cOntracte for research throujp^h advertising for bids. This is particularly so since the meas- ure of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar coat btlt in the qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to Our knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a re- search laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, there- fore, be free to plaoe its reaearoh eontracte or grants not only with those institutions which have a demonstrated research capacity but also with other institution^ whose latent talent or creative atmos- phere affords promise of research success. As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by the National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general, on an actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the r^arch contract or grant. There is one other matter which requires special mention.. Since re- search does not fall within the category of normal commercial or pro- curement operation which are ecisiiy covered by the usual contractual rdations# it is essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal re- qukemente be waived in the case of research contractors. For example, the NationM Research Foundation should be authorized by legislation to make, modify, Or amend contracts of all kinds with or without legal eonsM^l^n^ and without performance bonds. Similarly^ advance 31 payments should be allowed in the discretion of the Director of the Foundation when required. Finally, the normal vouchering require- ments of the General Accounting Office with respect to detailed itemi- zation or substantiation of vouchers submitted under cost contracts should be relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the usual procedures in the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency of research operations and will needlessly increase the cost of the work to the Government. Without the broad authority along these lines which was contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing Executive Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering requirements granted by the General Accountmg Office, the Office of Scientific Research and 'Development would have been gravely handi- capped in carrying on research on military matters during this war. Colleges and universities in which research will be conducted prin- cipally under contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial institutions, not equipped to handle the detailed vouchering pro- cedures and auditiag technicalities which are required of the usual Government contractors. YII. Budget. — Studies by the several committees provide a partial basis for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds required to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program should grow in a healthy manner from modest beginnings. The following very rough estimates are given for the first year of operation after the Foundation is organized and operatmg, and for the fifth year of operation when it is expected that the operations would have reached a fairly stable level: Activity Millions of dollars First year Fifth year Division of Medical Research. $5. 0 $20. 0 Division of Natural Sciences 10- 0 50. 0 Division of National Defense 10. 0 20, 0 Division of Scientific Personnel and Education 7. 0 29. 0 Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration Administration . 5 1. 0 1.0 2.5 33.5 12S. 5 Action by Congress The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the uigent need of the days ahead. The form of the organization suggested is the result of considerable deliberation. The form is important. The very successful pattern of o^anization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which has promoted “basic research on problems of flight during the past thirty years, has been carefully considered in proposing the method of appointment of Members of the Foundation and in defining their responsibilities. Moreover, whatever program is established it is vitally important that it satisfy the Five Fundamentals. SS The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outlLna The excehent reports of the committees which studied these matters are attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing det^ed su^estions. I%islation is necessary. It should be drafted with great care Early action is imperative, however, if this nation is to meet the challenge of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On the wisdona with which we br^ science to bear against the problems of the conaing years depends in large measure our future as a nation. 34 APPENDICES 35 Appendix I COMMIHEES CONSULTED QUESTION ‘‘With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a pro^am for continuing in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?'^ Committee Dr. W. W. Palmer, chairman; bard professor of medicine, Columbia Univereity; director of medical service of Presbyterian Hospital, New York City. Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary; director, physiology laboratory, School of Medicine, New York University. Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary; assistant professor of medicine, Columbia University. Dr. W. B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard University; associate director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital. Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and bio- chemistry, St, Louis University School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award). Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University. Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of surgery at Tulane Uuiversity School of Medicine, Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering and director of the chemical laboratories at the Cali- fomia Institute of Technology. Dr. James J. Waring, professor of medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine. QUESTION ““V^at can the Government do now and in the future to aid res^roh activitim by public and private organizations? The proper roles of public and of private research, and, their interrelation, should be carefully considered.^’ Committee Dr. Isaiah Bowman, chairman; president of Johns Hopkins Univer^ sity. Dr. J. T. Tate, vice chairman; research professor of physics, Univer- sity of Minn^Ota. Dr. W. Rupert Maclaurin, secretary; profe^r of economic^, Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology. 31 Dr. Oliver E. Buckley, president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. Dr. Walter C. Coffey, president of the University of Mmnesota. Mr. Oscar S. Cox, deputy Administrator of the Foreign Economic Administration. Col. Bradley Dewey, president of Dewey & i^y Chemical Co. Dr. Clarence A. Dykstra, provost of the University of California at Los Angeles. Dr. C. P. Haskins, director of Haskins Laboratories. Dr. Edwin H. Land, president and director of research, Polaroid Corporation. Dr. Charles E. MacQuigg, dean of the College of Engineering, Ohio State University. Dr. Harold G. Moulton, president of the Brooking Institution. Eev. J. Hugh O'Donnell, president of the University of Notre Dame. Dr. I. I. Kabi, professor of physics, Columbia University (recipient of Nobel Award). Dr. Warren Weaver, director for natural sciences, Rockefeller Foun- dation. Dr. Robert E. Wilson, chairman of the board, Standard Oil Co. of Indiana. Dr. William E. Wrather, director, U. S. Geological Survey. QUESTION “Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and develop- ing scientific talent m American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in. this county may be assured on a level com- parable to what has been done during the war?" Committee Dr. Henry Allen Moe, chairman; secretary-general of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Mr. Lawrence K. Frank, secretary. Mr. Henry Chauncey, assistant secretary. Dr. Henry A. Bartx)n, director of the American Institute of Physics. Dr; C. Lalor Burdick, special assistant to the president, E. I. du Pont de Nemours <fe Co. Dr. J. B. Conant, pr^ident of Harvard University; chairman of the National Defense Research Committee. Dr. Watson Davis, editor and director of Science Service. Dr. R. E. Doherty, president of the Carnegie Institute of Technology. Dr. Paul E. Elicker, executive secretary, National Association of Secondary School Principals. Mr. Farnham P. Griffiths, lawyer, San Francisco. Dr. W. S. Hunter, professor of psychology at Brown University. Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean of the College of Science, Literature, and Arts at the University of Minnesota. Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director of the Institute of Current World Affairs. Dr. Harlow Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory. Dr. Hugh S. Taylor, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton Uni- versitv. . Dr. E. Wilson, professor of vital statistics, Harvard University School of Pubhc Health. 38 QUESTION “Wliat can be done, consistent with military security, and with the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world as soon as possible the contributions wMch have been made during our war effort to scientific knowledge?’^ Committee Dr. Irvin Stewart, chairman; executive secretary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; director of the Committee on Scientific Aids to Learning of the National Research Council. ?klr. Cleveland Norcross, secretary; executive assistant to the executive secretary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development- Dr. J. P. Baxter III, president of Williams College; historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Dr. Karl T. Compton, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; chairman of the Research Board for National Security; member of the National Defense Research Committee. Dr. J. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the National Defense Research Committee. Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president of the University of Pennsylvania in charge of Medical Affairs ; chairman of the Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Dr. M. A. Tuve, director, applied physics laboratory, Johns Hopkins University; staff member of the department of Terrestrial Magne- tism of the Carn^e Institution of Washington. Mr. Carroll L. Wilson, executive assistant to the Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. 39 Appendix 2 REPORT OF THE MEDICAL ADVISORY COMMIHEE TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal 41 Members of the Committee ^ 42 Summary-— 43 Recommendations 45 Part I. Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee are based 46 L The record of medicine in World War II 46 2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Re- search and Development 47 3. Effect of war on medical research 48 4. The need for continued medina^ research- — 48 5. I^tportance of fundamental research to the progress of medicine^ » 40 6. The place of medical schools and universities in medical research 1 _ 50 7. Medical research under State sponsorship in Great Britain M 8. The need for Federal aid to medical research 51 9. How financial aid should be supplied - 53 10. Estimated cost of program 54 11. The need for an independent agency 54 12. Compensation-- 55 13. Patent rights 55 Part II. Fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds ~for medical research 57 Part III. Recommendations outlining the establishment of a '^National Foundation for Medical Research” as an independent Federal aeenev-. 59 1. Composition of the Foundation 59 Board of trustees 59 Technical board ” 60 Office of the executive secretary 61 2, Functions of the Foundation * 62 Financial Aid ^ II'IIIIIl 62 a. General research funds. 1-111111111 62 b. Fellowships I.III 62 c. Grants-in-aid 63 Coordination and initiation of research ' " 63 3, Reports —.III”””! 64 4. Authority to modify procedure 1 64 40 LEHER OF TRANSMiHAL Dr. Vannevab Bush, Director ^ * Office of Scientific Research and Development, 1530 P Street Air., Washington 25^ D, C. My Dear Dr. Bush: It is my privilege to submit herewith the report of the Medical Advisory Committee appointed by you in Janu- ary of this year to answer the second question in President Roosevelt^s letter of November 17, 1944, which vras worded: With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work w^hich has been done in medicine and related sciences? The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe future generations. In preparing this report, the Committee has consulted some 350 representatives from 73 of the 77 medical schools of the United States, from the Services, from various research institutions, from the phar- maceutical industry, and from philanthropic foundations; it has conferred in joint meeting with the Committee on Medical Research; and it has received written comment and advice from many leaders in medicine and allied sciences throughout the country. The report, which is preceded by a summary, is in three parts; (1) Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee are based, (2) fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds for medical research, (3) recommendations outlining the estab- lishment of a National Foimdation for Medical Research as an inde- pendent Federal agency. The Committee reco^zes a great and urgent need for the expansion and renovation of medical school laboratories. However, our study has taken no account of this requirement, pertinent as it is to medical research, since a building program was considered outside the scope of our assignment. This report has the unanimous approval of my Committee and I submit it with the conviction that it has, almost without exception, the endorsement of the many individuals to whom the Committee is so deeply indebted for freely given and valuable advice. R^pectfully yours, Walter W. Palmer, Chairman, Medical Advisory Committee. April 25, 1945. 41 MEMBERS OF THE COMMIHEE Dr. Walter W. Palmer, cliairnian, bard professor of medicine, Colum- bia University; director of medical service of Presbyterian Hospital, New York City. Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary, director, physiology laboratory, school of medicine, New York University. Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary, assistant professor of medicine, Columbia University. Dr. William B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard University; associate director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City Hospital. Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and biochemistry, St. Louis University School of Medicine (recipient of Nobel Award). Dr, Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University. Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine. Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering, director of the chemical laboratories at the California Institute of Technology. Dr. Jam^ J. Waring, professor of- medicine. University of Colorado School of Medicine. 42 SUMMARY Impressed by the contributions medicine has made in the present world struggle, President Roosevelt asked what could be done by the Government in the future to aid ‘'the war of science against ^sease.” Recognition of the brilliant record of medicine in World War II has brought comfort to thousands of families with members in the armed forces. Compared to World War I the death rate for aD diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has fallen from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1 ,000 strength. Penicillin and the sulfonamides, the insec- ticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved hygienic measures have all but conquered yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneumonia, meningitis. Malaria has been controlled. Disability from venereal disease has been radically reduced by new methods of treatment. Dramatic jprogress in surgery has been aided by the increased avail- ability of blood and plasma for transfusions. Much of the credit for these advances is properly assignable to the Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Re- search and Development. In 3 years this o^anization has developed penicillin and DDT; supported blood fractionation studies resulting in serum albumin as a blood substitute and immune globulin as a new countermeasure against infections; and standardized the effec- tive treatment of malaria with atabrine’* now used by the armed forces. Up to July 1944, this pro^mJhad'*’cost $15,000,000, a modest outlay for the saving in suffering and lives. These dramatic advances in medicine during the war have been the result of developmental rather than fundamental research, and have come through the application, to problems of wartime impor- tance, of a lai^e backlog of scientific data accumulated through careful research m the years prior to the war. In the meantime, sorely needed additions to basic knowledge have been prevented. The war has forced us to set aside fundamental research to a large extent. Om capacity to carry out research in the future has been impaired by the curt^ment of medical education, the absorption of physicians into the armed forces, the prohibition against training draft-eligible men m the basic medical sciences, and the diversion into developmental problems of those scientists who were able to remain in their laboraWries. The universities are the chief contributors to pure science, for re- search thrives best in an atmc^phere of academic freedom. It is to the uniyersiti^ that we must turn to tram more men for research and to provide the information that will enable us to solve the problems of ean^, degenerative disease and the ageing proc^, neuropsychi- atric disorders, peptic ulcer, asthma, and even the common cold. University funds that can be used for medical research are decreas- ing as research oc^ts rise. Income from endowment is steadily shrink- 43 ing, while endowment itself is no longer being increased by large new gifts. Medical schools must continue to meet relatively fixed ex- penses of teaching and overhead from smaller budgets, with the result that less money is left for research. ,, , [Medical research will continue in the future, regardless of any ad- verse circumstances. The Government, however, has an opportunity to play an important role in suppleinenting the depleted research budgets of medical schools. Fedsp^ aid will increase the volume of medical research; it will strengthen the promise of important discovery and speed its fulfillment; it wiU encourage and develop the financi^y weaker schools now at a serious disadvantage; and it will enable tha United States to maintain its position of world leadership in medic4 research in competition with the nations of Europe where State fupda have long been available for scientific research. When a government wisely invests the people's money in medical research, the people receive huge dividends in the form of better health and longer lives. If Federal funds are tp be used to aid piedical research, they should be provided in three forms: 1. Funds should be made available as unrestricted gra.nts, with no portion earmarked for a specific purpose, to supply technical help and materials; to enable a limited number of young people to obtain re- search experience during their regular course in medicine ; to build up research in institutions where, for financial reasons, it is not now w^t developed; and to cover a miiltitude of research requirements within each institution. The administration of these funds should be decen- trdizftd to the fullest possible extent, allowing full play to the wisdom and experience of medical school faculties and administrators. If a central agency were to attempt to underwrite a program of this sort item by item, the costs of administration would be prohibitive, and the org^ization would be too rigid and ponderous to meet the num- erous, diverse, and sometimes rapidly varying heeds of the institutions, 2. Funds should be made available to support fellowships in order that young people with aptitude for research may be selected, trained, and given an opportunity to carry on research. 3. Funds should be made available to support special projects of considerable magnitude and importance by grants-m-aid. The Federal agency should receive its funds by such means as tq permit it to favor long term grants, up to 10 years. Federal aid should be initiated ihodestly. Funds exceeding the capacity of the Nation’s research institutions to utilize them effec- tively would do harm by encouraging mediocre work and by driving away university and foundation support. The responsible agency must remain free from political influence and resistant to special pr^ures. _ Its policies must be determined by scientists who bring sympathetic understanding to the problems of research- The agency must have the necessary flexibility to modify its procedures in the light of e:^erience. Fpm available information it is estimated tlbat approximately 5 to 7 miUwn dojlars annually could be used effectively in the immediate pt^twar period. M the resaan^i program develops a larger si^ i^ay be required- Recommendations Tile Committee recommends that Government aid be provided for medical research tiirough the creation of an independent Federal agency to be called the National Foundation for IMedical Eesearch. The Foundation would consist of a board of trustees, a technical board, and the necessary administrative organization. The board of trustees would consist of five eminent scientists appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate for terms of years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of one member each year. The trustees would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be appointed without regard to civil-service laws. -Meetings of the trustees would be held monthly with one meeting annually in each of sk geographical regions. The trustees would determine the policies of the Foundation and act on all requests for funds. The technical board would consist of 12 scientists, representing special fields of medical science, appointed by the trustees for terms of 3 years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the retirement of 4 members each year. Technical board members would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be ap- pointed without regard to the civil-service laws. Members of the technical board would have the necessary aides and ad hoc committee to assist them in the performance of their duties. The technical board would forward all requests for funds to the trustees with recom- mendations for appropriate action, follow the progress of work sup- ported by the Foundation, and prepare reports or appraisals requested by the trustee. The financial and other business affairs of the Foundation would be in char^ of a full-time executive secretary responsible to the trustees. The Foundation would not engage in research but would initiate and coordinate research in existing institutions and maintain liaison with interested domestic and foreign agencies. 45 Part I CONSIDERATIONS ON WHICH THE RECOM- MENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE ARE BASED The Record of Medicine in World War II We believe that at no time has superior medical and surgical care been available to the public generally than is now received by our armed forces even in the most remote parts of the world. Public knowledge of the excellence of this care has brought comfort to thousands of anxious families and has strengthened the morale of our fighting men. The magnificent records of the medical departments of the Army and Navy are directly attributable to two factors: (1) The training men received before the war in American medical schools and teaching, hospitals was the best in the world, and, when war came, large reserves of superbly trained physicians and surgeons were available for the armed forces. (2) Medical progress had been rapid before the war and was continued at an accelerated rate during the war under the stimulus of the Committee on Medical Research and the Army Epidemiology Board. The results are spectacular. Between World War I and World War II, the death rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces,has been reduce from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1,000 strength. Oysent^, formerly th e scourge of armies, has become a minor problem. Tetanus, typhoid, paratyphoid, cholara, and smallpox have been practically eliminated. As a result of a potent vaccine and improved mosquito control, yellow fever has not appeared in Hie Army or Navy. The prompt arrest of Hie Naples epidemic of typhus by means of the insecticide DDT is a dramatic example of preventive medicine. The use of the sulfa drugs has lowered the death rate from lobar pneumonia in Hie Army from 24 percent in World War I to less than 1 percent at present. The death rate from meningitis has been reduced to one-tenth of that in World War I. Penicillin is one of the great triumphs of modem therapeutics. By its use death rates and disability from infections due to the staphylo- <x)ccus, streptococcus, pneumococcus, and anthrax bacillus have hem ^eatly reduced. It has also proved to be a most effective weapon in limiting infection and in accelerating healing of wounds and burns. As a result of treatment with penicillin the days per man per year lost from active duty in 1944 because of venereal disease were one-third of those for 1940. The temporary disabling complications of gonorrhea have been cut in this period to one twenty-fourHi. 46 Advance in surgery have been scarcely less dramatic. Despite devastating antipersonnel munitions, the fatality rate among the wounded has been as low as in any war in history. Prolonged and difficult operations are performed successfully in field hospitals close to the front. Surgical skill has been aided by the availability of large quantities of plasma and whole blood for the treatment of severely woimded men. 2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Development In the summer of 1940, the advice of the Division of Medical Sciences of the National R^earch Council was sought by the Surgeons General in many fields of medicine-and suigery . Ultimately^ 13 committees and 43 subcommittees were set up in aviation medicine, chemotherapy, convaJ^ence and rehabilitation, drugs and medical supplies, indus- trial medicine, medicine including malarial studies, infectious diseases, nutrition, tropical disease, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, etc., neuropsychiatry, pathology, sanitary engineering, shock and trans- fusion, surgery, and the treatment of gas casualties. In June 1941, the Committee on Medical Research -was organized under the Office of Scientific Research and Development, to ‘^initiate and support scientific research on medical problems affecting the national defense.” The existing committees of the National Research Council acted in an advisory capacity to the new organization. As of December 1, 1944, 496 research contracts had been executed by the Committee on Medical Research with 120 different institutions. Over 95 percent of these contracts were with universities or teaching hospitals. The personnel represented in this work numbered about 2,670, of whom 553 were physicians. These investigators have studied dysentery, bubonic plague, cholera, gas ganOTene, influenza, tuberculosis, hemolytic streptococcal disease, encephalitis, primary at5rpical pneumonia, airborne infections, venereal diseases, infected wounds, bums, neurosurgery, X-rays, surgical sutures, shock, blood substitutes, treatment of gas casualties, convalescence and rehabilita- tion, insect and rodent control, antimalarial drugs, and the develop- ment and use of penicillin. Among the most conspicuous achievements of this program are the following: а. The acquisition, in civilian hospitals and laboratories of suffi- cient knowledge of the therapeutic value of penicillin to warrant its official adoption by the medical divisions of the Army and Navy, and to provide the impetus for the great production program that has made this remarkable drug available in large quantities for both military and civilian use. б. Developments in insect repellents and insecticides, particularly DDT, important in warding troops against insect-borne diseases such as typhus and mMaria. c. The study of human blood plasma which' has led h) use by the armed forces of servim albumin as a blood substitute, of immune globulins to combat infections, and of fibrin foam to stop bleeding. d. The improvement and standardization of the treatment of malaria by atabrine. 47 e. The determination of the relatiye usefulness of sulfonamide drugs in the treatment of wounds and burns. /. The physiological indoctrination of our airmen and the developr ment of devices tvhich enable them to endure the rigors of high alti-r tudes without disastrous lo^ of fighting capacity or life."* It is fair to say that without the Office of Scientific Kesearch and Development or its equivalent few or none of the investigations listed above would have been carried out with the same speed and thorough- iiess. Thi^ research program to June 30, 1944, had cost over $15,000,*? 000. Private funds were not available to finance this work. 3. Effect of War on Medical Research Despite this imposing record of practical achievement, the war has seriously retarded the long-range development of medicine in ways perhaps not immediately apparent to the uninformed, but neverthe-? less with effects that will be longlasting. Because those physicians and scientists who have remained in their laboratories have, for patriotic reasons, devoted themselves to special problems raised by the exigencies of war, essential fundamental research has decreased to an extent which can only be viewed with grave conceim. Our hospitals and medical schools have suffered serious depletions of staff in order to supply the armed forces with needed physicians. Medical education has been hurried and impaired by the accelerated program, and the advanced training of young men has hem in prac- tically complete abeyance throughout the war. This diversion of ph;picians, coupled with an i^ffective prohibition against graduate training in the ancillary sciences has Mt the fields of medicM scimee barren and without the seed to produce a new generation of investi- gators. It will be many years before medicine fully recovers. 4. The Need for Continued Medical Research It must be emphasized that nearly all that was good or apparently new in war medicine had its roots in civilian medicine. The pressure of war served chiefly to accelerate the development and large scale application to military needs of previously known facts. Medicine must consider now how to attack the medical problems of peace. As Pr^ident Eoosevelt noted, the annual deaths in this couptry from, one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives lost by us in battle. This is true even though notable progress h^ been made in civilian medicine during the past three decades. Diabetes has been brought under control by the discovery of insulin; pernicious anemia by the use of liver therapy; and the once wide- spread deficiency diseases have been almost eradicated, even in the poorest income groups, by the discovery of accessory food factors Mid the improvement of the diet. Notable advances have been made in the early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation treatment of this dreaded disease. In the period of 1900 to 1942, the average life expectancy of the American people increased from 49 to 65 years, largely as a result of the reduction in the death fates of infants and children. In the last two decadm, the death rate from diseases of childhood has been re- duced 87 percent. Deaths from^'scarlet fever have been reduced 92 4S percent, from whooping cough 74 percent, and fipni measles 91 percent. The death rate from diphtheria among children (5 to 14) is only one eighteenth what it was two decades ago. Only one fourth as many children die today from tuberculosis and pneumonia as would if the mortality rate of 20 years a,go still preyailed* The death rate among children between the ages of 5 and 14 from all causes combined was cut 57 percent between 1922 and 1942. For eyeiy three children who die under current conditions, more than seyen would have died if the death rate of two decades ago had continu^di This reduction in the death rate in childhood has shifted the em- phasis in medicine to the middle- and old-age groups, and particularly to the malignant diseases and the degenerative processes which are prominent in the later decades of life. Cardioyasciilar disease, in- cluding chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, aud cerebrS,! hemorrhage, now accounts for 45 percent of the deaths in the United States. Second in importance are the iofectious diseases, and third is cancer. Added to these are many maladies (for example, the com- mon cold, arthritis, asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which, though, infrequently fatal, cause incalculable disability. Another aspect of the changing emphasis in clinical medicine is the increasing incidence of mental disease. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill. More than one-third of the hospital beds in this country are filled with such persons at a cost of $175,000,000 annually. Each year nearly 125,000 mentally ill new patients are hospitalized. In short, despite notable progress in prolonging the span of hxnnan life and in alleviating suffering, adequate methods of prevention and cme are not yet available for many diseases. Additional hospitals, physicians, and mechanisms for dispersing knowledge, however use-^ ful, cannot supply a complete solution. We simply do not knoW enough, and increased facilities for medical care will not supply the missing answers. The basic task faced by medicine is continued exploration of the human organism and the nature of disease. This exploration has only begun. 5. importance of Fundamental Research to the Progress of Medicine Research in medicine may be carried out effectively in two ways: First, by a coordinated attack on a particular disease; or second, by independent studies of the fundamental nature of the human body and its physiological mechanisms, of the nature of bacteria, viruses, and other agents of disease, and of the influence of environment on boti. An example of the first method is the attack on malaria car- ried out under the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, the National Research Council, and the Office of Scientific Research and Develop- m^t. The discovery of peniciUm is an example of the second method: Fleming noted that a common mold, PenicUlmm notatum^ inhibitod the growth of a culture of bacteria in which it appeM*ed as a contami- nant. Thus an incidental observation in the course of studies unre- lated to chemotherapy furnished the basis for the ultimate develop- ment of the most v^uable chemotherapeutic agent known. Discoveries in medicine have often come from the most remote and unexpected fields of science in the past; and it is probable that this 49 wffl be equaUy true in the future. It is not i^ely that sig^cant ; SoVris in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, SSrand other refractory conditioi^ will he made perhaps unex- ^eSy ^ the result of fundamental discoveries m fields unrelated to “obtain for the first time sight or knowledge of some fact or principle hitherto unknown.” Discovery cannot be Sved by dnective. Further progr^ requires that the entire Si of medicine and the underlying sciences of chenustiy physics, ^tomy, biochemistry, physiology pharmacolo^ bacteriology, patholo^, parasitology, etc., be developed impartially. 6. The Place of Medical Schools and Universities in Medi- cal Research *The medical schools and universities of tWs comtry can contribute to medical progress by carrying on research to the Imnt of available facilities and persoimel, and by trammg competent mvestigators for an enlarged program in the futime. _ In some cases coordinated direct attacksi;will; be made on special problems by teams of investigators from the medical schools, supply menting similar direct attacks carried on by the Army, Navy , Imblie Health Service, and other organizationsy»HoweyOT,.the mam oblig^ tion of the medical schoob and universities, m addition to teaohmg, will be to continue the traditional function of these mstitution^that of providing the individual worker with an opportunity for the "^mun- tary and untrammeled study in the directions and by_ the memods su^ested by his imagination and curiosity. The entire history ^ sc^ce bears testimony to the supreme impor^ce of feuding the prepared mind complete freedom for the exercise of imtiatiye. .Ine be^ duty and privilege of the medical schools and umversities is to foster medical research in this way, and this duty caimot be shifted to Government agencies, industrial organizations, or any other ^^^^aim^of their dose relationship to teaching hospitals, the medi^ schools are in a unique position to integrate clinical myestigation with the work of the departments of predinical science, and to mpart new knowledge to physidans in training. Conversdy, the teach^ hospi- tals are especially wdl oxgmiized to carry on medicd r^earch because of their close relationship to the schools, on which they depend for staff and supervision. „ , i j -d Not all our medical schools are equally devdoped. because of iuadequate financial support or lack of trained personnel, some of them can contribute little to medical research. A great mcrease in the resources of the Nation would be acHeved by stimulating research in these less favored schools. It is imperative that we employ all possible methods of improving the research facihties and research staffs of our present mescal schools before considering the establish- ment of new institutions. 50 7. Medical Research Under State Sponsorship in Great Britain Although Federal aid for medical research was brought about in the United States largely under pressure of war, GoTernment support of research has been general in Europe for many years. As a rule this support has been ddegated to organizations separate from the ordinary Government bureaus in order to remove it as far as possible from polit- ical influence and to place the administration of funds in the hands of men experienced in r^earch. In Great Britain as early as” 1911’^the promotion of medical research was explicitly recognized as a responsibility of the State by the estab- lishment of the Medical Research Committee, which became the Medical Research Council in 1920. The Council has administrative autonomy with general responsibility to a committee of ministers in the Privy Council. It receives money from both Parliament and nongovernmental sources specifically for furtherir^ medical research and has no connection with any system of medical care or health insurance. The Medical Research Council has continued to play an increasingly important and eminently successful role in its field. Through it Government support for medical research and the aid of medical science to the Government are assured. Medical research in Great Britain also receives indirect Government aid through the University Grants Committee, a Standing Committee of the Treasury. Its members are independent experts of acknowl- edged repute and thoroughly^ familiar with the problems of university administration. The Committee's terms of reference are “To inquire into the financial needs of university education in the United Kingdom, and to advise the Government as to the application of any grants that may be made by Parliament toward meeting them.” Although the University Grants Committee do^ not give direct grants for specific medical research projects, it holds that research is one of the primary functions of a university and an indispensable element in the work of university teachers. Grants to the institutions are in the form of unrestricted funds with no portion earmarked for a specific purpose. Through a recent act of Parliament whereby this Committee is enabled to award $4,000,000 annually to medical schools and $2,000,000 to teaching hospitals, this indirect support of medical research by the Government has been substantially increased. 8. The Need for Federal^Aid to Medical Research Between World War I and World War II the United State overtook the other nations in medical r^earch and foiged ahead to a position of world leadership. If this leadership is to be maintained, some form of Government financial aid to the medical schools will be nec€ssary. This view is accepted by the Committee and by nearly all whom the Committee has consult^. ^ Dr. A. N. Richards, Chairman of the Committee on Medical Research, reported to the Subcommittee on Wartime Health and Education of the Committee on Education and Labor of the United State Senate that, in connection with medical research, “The experi- ence of the of Scientific Ees^rA and Development has proved 51 that none of the uniTersities which we^e calle4 upon for Office of Scientific Eesearch and Derelopment work could afford to undertake it on the scale which the emergency demanded at the expense of its own r^onrces. Hence, if the concerted efforts of medical investi* gators which have yielded so much of value during the war are to be continued on any comparable scale during the peace, the conclusion ■ is inescapable that they must be supported by government/^ ^ At the same bearing, Dr, Lewis H. Weed, Chairman of the Division of Medical Sciences of the National Research Council, stated * Much of medical research will necessarily have to be abandoned in th^ private and semiptivate institutions of the coxmtry unless Goyern- ment subsidy is made available in some form for the general support of medical research/’ Without Federal support American medical research will not stop, but without it our opportunities to advance medical knowledge can- not fully he exploited, and our objectives will be reached more slowly. It has been computed that the annual budgets of the 77 medical schools in the United States total about $26,000,000. ^ The portion of this sum spent for medical research cannot be determined accurately. Income from tuition amounts to $8,000,000, leaving a deficit of $18,000,000 annually. To meet this deficit the schop|s, apart from those connected with State imiversities apfi financed hj the respective States, draw upon many sources. A substanti^ part comes from university endowinopt, but during the past 10 years the amount of new endowment tp meqica| schools hm greatly diminished. At the smne time th^ incomp from pmsept endowment has been cut by pnerthird. With cpntinnad high taxation it is improbable that large gifts snd bequests for smentffic work pan be expected in tho fntnre. In many instances funda a?o allocated to the modip^ schpojs from tuition fees derived from other departments pf the university. Another source of research funds is the foundations, but, as in the case of th® universities, the income from foundation endowment is decreasing, Moreover, the foundations in general favor short-term grants to prp|ectP which carry promise of yielding immediate results. Industo is a potential source of funds, but gifts from this smirce are psualjy for apecffic problems of a developmental nature. TJni- versity alumni as^^iations contribute only relatively srpall sums* Direct gifts from individuals are a substantial afd at times, but the medical schools moat compete wfith all charities and churches for these funds. Furthermore, it is estimated that gifts from individuals, while perhaps mqre nuiperpus, are far smaller ip total than the large contributions of individual donors in the past. ^ When the funds available to a medical school are cut, the institu- tion usually retrenches by curtailing the portion used for research. Overhead and teaching expenses must be met, and research becomes a Ipxury, Finally,^ while research fupds are decreasing, the costs of research are steadily rising. More elaborate and expensive equipmoPt ip rpqimM, SPPpfies are morp opstlj, apd the wages pf assistants are 9. How Financial Aid Should be Supplied Federal financial aid to the medical schools should be proyided in three forms: General research funds, fellowships, and ^ante- in-aid. Gmeral research funds. — It is the Committee's opinion that un- restricted grants, with no portion earmarked for specific purposes, and with administration delegated to local research boards, would be the most yaluable and productire form in which Government support could be pvea. A medical school consists of a dozen or more semi-autonomous departments, each with its own budget. In the schools favored with a large endowment, research projects are constantly in progress in all departmente; in financially weaker schools, the budget of a depart- ment may be too small to supply as much as a secretary for the department head, and research is, of course, a financial impossibility* Even in the most favored departments, the quality and quantity of research would be greatly inci*eased if it were possible to employ an extra technical assistant or two, to purchase additional supplies or a nece^iary piece of equipment, to improve or enlarge animal quarters, to meet other countless small financial requirements that may im suddenly and may be of a temporary nature. In departmente ilh small budgets such requirements are even more pressing. Many .edical schools at present have small likelihood of securing grante-in- d because they nave neither personnel nor equipment to conduct iccessfuUy the type of research project appropriately financed by lis method. If a central agency were to attempt to meet item by item these lany requirements by means of specific grants, the administrative >sts womd be prohibitive. The amount needed for each item is nail, but the total amoimt needed by an institution may be relatively trge. Furthermore, a central agency would lack the flexibility to meet he rapidly varying and often temporary research needs that arfee in he medic^ schools. A promising lead in r^earch may prove patently aise within a month or two. It is equally important that the project hould then be stopped, and its personnel and equipment promptly liverted to more productive work, as it is that the project dhould lave been given a ‘trial. A special use for general research funds would be to provide '^junior ellowships^' which would allow a medical student to interrupt his M>urse, usually between the predinical and clinical years, and td ievote himself full-time to research for a ^ear or two. The chances JQ this country for medical students to gam research experience prior bo ^aduation are few, and as a result much research abihfcy goes undiscovered. Candidates for these fellowships would be unknown fco a central agency, whidi would have to rely entirely won the judgment of the locM r^arch board for their selection. Hence it would be proper and economic^ to provide th^ fellowships from the general research funds administered by the local board. The provision of fimds as block grante to local research boards would exercise to greatest advant^e the principle of decentralkation of control of r^earch; would diminate costly ov^head; would create a dexiMe mechanism to meet rapidly varying n^ds; would allow full pi&j to the wisdom Mid experience of medical school faciliti^ and adminiskators, whose knowledge in aggregate and whose particular knowledge of local needs must always exceed that of a central agency; would promote research in laboratories where it is now poorly de- veloped; would foster investigations of an exploratory nature; and would provide the great^t and most effective stimulus to medical research. FeUowships—FedBT&l funds should be used to support fellowships, extending over periods up to 6 years, to be awarded by the Govern- ment agency to enable selected men to obtain training in research, to leam techniques in fields other than those of their basic scientific education, or to undertake research on a full-time basis. Since 1021 the fellowship program, supported by the Kockefeller Foundation and administered by the Medical Fellowship Board of the National Ke- search Council, has made an important contribution to the advance of medical science and to the training of teachers and investigators in the United States. An increase in the number of such fellowships is .greatly needed. Granis-in-aid. — limited number of important research projects, both of immediate and long-range consequence, will require special grants-in-aid. On occasion, through grants-in-aid, support should be given to medical schools, hospitals, or nonprofit scientific institutions to enable a senior investigator to develop the problems of his interest more rapidly and effectively. i 0. Estimated Cost of Program No final statement on costs is possible at this time. From informa- tion received from the deans of medical schools, from the expenditures of the Committee on Medical R^earch, and from other sources,' it is estimated that approxmately 5 to 7 million dollars annually can be used effectively in the immediate postwar period. A larger sum may be r^uired when the program is fully under way. This estimate does not include the possible assumption of present commitments of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. A more definite statement would require prolonged study. 1 1 . The Need for an Independent Agency Advances in medical science have come and will continue to come preponderantly from medical schools or science departments of uni- versities. Therefore the problem of improving medical research and of trmning more top-flight investigators is primarily one of aiding the medical schools and universities to utilize their research and ^uca- tionaJ facilities to the full^t extent. In the Committee's opinion, medical research could best be promoted by the creation of an^ independent Federal agency. Tto new organization would not conflict with the medical interests of existing Government agenci^, none of which is primarily concerned with devdopiug the basic medical sciences or with training personnel, teth of which are functions of the universities. Some dupucation of inv^tigation would occur in problems in which civilian investigators and one or more Government agmcies were mutually interested. However, it cannot he too stroc^y emphasized that, far from being wasteful, duplimtion is imp)erative in medical research, where each 54 new discovery can be accepted only after repeated confirmation by independent observers approaching the problem from different points of view. The duplication is more apparent than real, ^ the results of independent investigators working on a common problem rarely agree exactly, and the differences are frequently the bask for new discoveries. Esther than conflicting with existing agencies, ihe prop<md hody would supplement the research activities of th^e agencies in a valuable manner. Only through the efforts of such a body can our Govern- ment agenda be supplied with the necessary increase in numbers of expert personnel ^d with the all-important increase in basic scientific knowledge on which medical advance depends. As the function of the proposed agency is broadly conceived, m it must be concerned not only with research but with the training of personnel required by all exkting agencies, and as it must operate through non-Govemmental education institutions, the future of which rests heavily upon private endowment or support by the States, it is the Committee^ conviction that the F^eral agency concerned with medical research should be created de mw and be independent of all existing agencies, none of which k sufficiently free of specialkation of interest to warrant assigning to it the sponsorship of a program so broad and so intimately related to civilian institutions. 1 2. Compensation The Committee believes that better effort will be put into the work of the agency by members if they are paid. The question of adjustr- ment of salary from parent institutions should be left to the parties concerned. It k estimated that members of the board of trustees and tedmieal board, as proposed bdow, will be called upon to give an average of one-tnird of their time to the work of the agency. One-half the time of the aides may be required. Thk includes time devoted by mem|>ers to the work of the ^ency at their official stations and in traveling. Over the past 25 years there has been an increasing draft of exi^rt personnel from the medical sehools to meet the demand for seimtists in activities related to the national welfare, until at present, even dis- counting the increased demands of war, many teachers and investiga- tors are unable to dkcharge their responsibilities to the institutions which pay their salaries. A further increase in thk borrowing of personnel without compensation can inflict only miury u|K>n the medical schools. Moreover, many competent investigators in medicine and surgery draw a ne^gible fraction of their income as salary, depending finan- cially upon (ffinical practice. Participation in the WOTk of the may interrupt thk practice and the r^ulting lo^ of inwme may ex- clude such persons from service. 1 3. Patent Riglits The practice in regard to patmt ri^ts on discoveries and inventions b^nii^ on hintian herfth varies in diff^ent medical ia^tutions in thk ^csountiy. The Ck'imnittee^ has m^e nO' efiwt to^ 'oodify them, or to arrive at a generally acceptable policy. It seems to the (^mmittM that under the present patent laws the priiK3{de of patenting certtnn types of discoveries and inventions to exclude misuse is sound. Since perhaps the majority of institutions do wt capit^e their patent pri^eges, and since such practice would be incomi^tabie with Government sponsored research, it is suggested that, where a patent be granted on research which has been sponsored by Government in whole or in part, the ownership of the patent remain in the inventor, and that the Government receive, in addition to a royalty-free license, the power to require the licensing of others. Part II FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE USE OF FEDERAL FUNDS FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH As stated above, the Committee is convinced that Federal aid is necessaiy to ensure maximal progr^ in the development of medical science. It is also convinced that this aid, if misdirected, may do serious harm. It believes that among the major principle which should govern the application of Federal aid to medical research are the followii^: а. Until experience has indicated the best plan of oiganimtion and procedure, the Federal agency created to aid medical research should be kept as flexible as possible. One of our colleague has written “The common history of social organizations has been their creation in r^ponse to an idea, their flowering und^ the influence of tibe idea, their loss of the idea, and their perpetuation for the maintenan<» of the prestige of the office-holder.^^ Only if authority to experilnsQt with organization is written into its charter will an agency designed to aid medical research escape this fate. б. The administration of Federal aid to medical research must be free from political influence and protoctwJ against special pressure. e. Men who are experienced m research and who understanid the problems of the investigator should administer the agency determine its policies. Since the agency wil be ooncjerned primarly with basic scientific research in, and scientific tryning and policies p^- tinent to, endowed or State supported civilian institutions, and ^ce the armed forc^, the Public Health Service, and other existing Gnv- emmental services have specialized interests, the Committee believes that it is as improper for any one of these services to hold the power of vote in matters pertaining to the proposed new agency as it would he for one or more members of the agency to vote in the medical councils of the service. d. The agency should not attempt to dominate or r^im^t medical research but should function by csreatmg greater opportuniti^ and more freedom for investiga^on, and by aiding in cooperative efforts. It Aould not attempt to uffiuence the selection of personnd, the con- ditions of tenure, the salaiy level, m other internal affairs of the insti- tutioBS to which it gives aid. e. Any prc^am of Federal aid to medical research should be mod- mtly iniliatea in terms of actual needs and conservatiyely increased as me capacity of the medical schools to utilize additional funds is demoEfitFated. If the Govemmmt spends too much in medicd re- searA, otii^r funcfe wil be drivaa out and the Gkiveomment wil be 57 the sole source of support. The schools should remain free to eleci the potential donor to whom they wish to apply. As Senator Peppei has stated, ‘^Government can not, and must not, take the place oi philanthropy and industry in the sponsorship of research.^^ /. The establishment of life-time research professorships, or of pro- toxjtod r^arch fellowships, at the expense of Federal funds is con- sidered unwise. In exceptional instances, as for example when an inv^tigator demonstrates unusual ability, or it is desirable to relieve a senior and experienced person from academic or clinical responsi- biliti^ in order to free him for research, support should be obtained from general r^earch funds or through a grant-in-aid. A grave danger in any effort to accelerate discovery is the ease with wmdi the quality of the work can be lowered by encouraging men to undertake research who are inadequately prepared or unfitted for the task- Mediocre research work in medicine is not only apt to be usel^, but may prove dangerous by misleadii^ medical practice and by fostering false hopes in the public. This danger must be guarded against by constantly encouraging corijfirmatory work or “challenging investigations.^' A. The agency should not serve merely as a mechanism for disbursiog funds for particular research projects, but should always attempt to maintain a broad view of the needs of the whole field of medical r^earch. i. It is believed that it would be unwise for a national body con- cerned‘with medical research to give prizes or otherwise to dispense praise or blame. It is also believ^ that this agency should avoid even the semblance of scientific authority. What is acceptable or unaccept- able in medicine must be ^tablished by tested methods of examina- tion aud not be made to appear as such because of the imprimatur of a national b(wly. j. The ngmcj ^ould come to share in the leadership of medical inv^tigation by encouraging individual mitiative and freedom of re- search, and with a careful avoidance of coercion and regimentation, winch might lead not only to mediocre work but to disastrous im- paimmnt of the spirit of cooperation, and of research itself. Indi- vidual ^ientific curiosity, community of interest and regard for the common w^ must in peace replace as a cohesive force the patriotism of war. Part III RECOMMENDATIONS OUTLINING THE ESTAB- LISHMENT OF A "NATIONAL FOUNDATION FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH" AS AN INDEPEND- ENT FEDERAL AGENCY It is recommended tliat an independent agency of the Federal Gov- ernment be established, to be known as the National Foundation for Medical Eesearch.^ 1 . Composition of the Foundation The Foundation is to be composed of (a) a board of trustees, (&) a technical boardu ^d (c) an executive secretary's ojfldce. Board of Trustees The board of trustees is to consist of five per^ns appointed without regard to the Civil Service Laws by the President of the United Stetes and subject to confirmation by the Senate. They are to be chosen on the basis of scientific achievement and leadekhip, wide knowledge of medical problems, capacity for administration and or- ganization, and with reasonable regard for geographical representa- tion. The board of trustees is to elect its own chairman. A member of the board of trustees is to serve on a part-time basis for a term of 5 years and is not to be eligible for reappointment. A member appointed to a vacancy caused by death or r^ignation is eligible for reappointment for a full term providing his short term has been less than 2 years. No two members serving simultaneously shall be chosen from the same institution. The successor to a retiring member shall not be chosen from the same institution except in unusual instances. The original members of the board of kustees are to be appointed for 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 years, respectively, in order to assure continui^ and rotation . Whenever a vacancy occ^ or is to occur, the chairman is to transmit to the President of the United States for Ms information a list of suitable candidate. In prepmng this list, the chairman is instructed to seek the advice of the Prudent of the National Academy of Science. The chairman is to represent the Foundation in matters ajBf^ting medical research where the into^ts of other Government agencies are involved. i Whmwei tSm 6mm M tRtmiSidd. a«ry medidiie, biology, eatomciogy, pratoaootogy, aad simOar Mds. 59 The board of trustees is to meet Bot less than once each month. At least one regular meeting each year is to be held in each of the folio geographical arc^i North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North South Central, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific coast areas. The board of trustees is to determine the broad policies of the Foundation. It is to appoint members of the technical board and is to hsTe the authority to approve or disapprove all recommendations of the technical board. It may request the chairman and other members of the technical board to sit with it whenever necessary . The board of trustees is to establish necessary liaison offices to insare a bm exchange of information with all domestic and foreign n^enoiess or service interested in medical research. It is to invite the Siu^aons G^eral of the Army, the Navy, the United States Public HeSth Service, the Air Force, or responsible officers of other domestic or foreign oi^anizations as may be indicated, to appoint appropriate liaison officers to sit with it during deliberations of interest to those agenci^- Liaison officers are not to have the power of vote. Remuneration. — ^Each member of the board of trustees is to he paid a sjjary of seventy-five hundred dollars ($7,500) per annum for that portion of his time which he devotes to the services of the Founda- tion. In accordance with Government regulations, a member is to receive travel expenses and suitable per diem to cover other costs when traveling. Technical Board A tedbnical board, composed initially of 12 persons, is to be ap- pointed, wifeout 3Fe!gard to the Civil Service Laws, by the board of tmitees. fie members of the tedmical board are to be chosen on the basis of Iheir knowledge and experience in special fields of medical r^earch and the related sciences, and with reasonable regard for gec^rsphieal representatiom The office of a board member is to rernam in his parent institution. At the discretion of the board of trustees tfie membership of the technical board may he increased or decreased in number. A memlw of the technical board should not ordinarily be cmot- sidered digibl© for reappointment, but a retired meinber jnay be appointed to the board of trusted. A member appqmlied to ffl an unexpired term is ei^ble for reappointment for a Mtt term. No two members serving simultaneously shall be chosen from the same iiBtitution. fie succ^sc^ to a retiring member shall not be chosen frpm s^e institution except in unusual instances. The chairman of the technical board is to be designated by the board of taistc^. He is to represent the technical board before the trufliees, B to call meetings of the technical board as frequently as nec^s«^y is to be responsible for the supervision of the activities of the beard the preparation of reports required by the board of trustees. " ' .. Z' fla originai members of tiie technical board are to be appointed in groups of 4 to serve 2, S, and 4 years, respectively, in order to aasure, continuity and ro-lationL, ^ Beml^^naMm.—Eadk member of the technical board is to serve on a pm^lime basis for S years, and is to receive a salary to be deter- mined by the Board of Trustees, but not to exceed five thousand dd&rs a ymr for that portion of his time which he devotes to the services of the Foundation. In accordance with Govenunent regulations, a member is to receive travel expenses and suitable per diem to cover other costs when traveling. Aides. — ^Each member of the technical board may, with the ap- proval of the technical board, appoint one or more aides without r^ard to the Civil Service Laws. These aides are to be selected on the basis of qualification in a special research field and are to serve on a part-time basis for periods up to 3 years. As determined by the board of trustees, aides are to be compensated for time spent in the work of the Foundation, and when traveling are to receive travel expenses in accordance with Government regu- lations and a suitable per diem to cover other costs. ^ As aides are scientiste in a potentially productive period, pro- vision is to be made to insure that they remain professionally active, and that service with the technical board does not jeopardize their academic careers. Committees. — The technical board is to appointfad hoc committees to advise with a particular member on medical problems. Members of such committees are to be appointed consultants with per diem compensation up to twenty-five dollars ($25), and in accordance with Government regulations are to receive travd expenses and suitable per diem to cover other costs when traveling. Aides and committees appointed for a tedmical b6ard member are to be discharged on the expiration of tie memher^s term, but continued service may be invited by the member^s successor. Authority of the technical hoard. — The technical hoard is to receive, review and recommend to the board of tnistees on all requests for general researdfi funds, fellowships, and grants-in-aid. It is to take such steps as are necessary to put approved pre^rams into effect. It is to maintain reasonable supervision of work under general research funds and grants-in-aid and of the activities of Fdlows, and keep the trustees informed on the progress of this work. It is to arrange for the preparation of reports or appraisals as re- quested by the board of trustees. Its members are to keep themsdves informed on the status of per- tinent medical problems, to which end they are authorized to convene roimd-table discussions, to invite (X)mpetent persons to prepare sum- maries of specific problems, and to seek authoritative information in any other appropriate manner. It is to receive and consider recommendations from individual investigators with regard 'to the further development of problems of possible scientific interest. Office of the Executive Seciekfry A full-time executive secretary is lo be appointed by the board of trustees after consultation wilb appropriate Cfeveomment fiscal and accounting agendm. 'Hie exiwutive secretary to oigamze adminis- trative, fiscal, and accounting office fw the wnduct of the busing of the Foundation. Fiscal actions approved by the Ixmrd of trustees me to be put into ^ect by the exemtive secretary and Ms affiliated officers. Except for the executive secretary, ail rnemlws of the staff of the executive sepretarj are lo be drawn fmm qualified civil-service lists. 61 2. Functions of the Foundation The functions of the Foundation are to be (a) to further medical resmrch by providing jSnancial aid through general research funds, fdObwshiiB and grants-in-aid; (b) to coordinate research in progress and to initiate new work considered essential; (c) to establish necessary liaison to secure a free exchange of medical information. Financial Aid a. Gefwrtd research funds. — On application, a block grant may be miyle to a medical school for general use over a period of 1 to 10 years for the promotion of research provided the institution can present evidence that it can efficiently utilize for scientific research the funds requested, and that it is prepared to give a reasonable accounting of the expenditure of funds received. The institution is to have a re- search committee, drawn preferably from the executive faculty and active investigators, which is to be informed on all local research ex- penditure, and is to be reponsible for the administration of the grant and for rei^rts and accounting required by the Foimdation. The institutions are to be allowed wide latitude in the expenditure of general research funds, but these expenditures are to be subject to review periodically by the Foundation, which is to have the power of cancellation. It is recommended that general r^arch funds be used in part for junior felowsinps to be awsraoi, widiout reference to the Foundation, to students wwUng for an M.I). demroo? order to permit the re- cipients to devote 1 or 2 years on a mil-time basis to acquiring more specialized knowledge of the tedmiques of medical research than is po^ible during the regular course. Junior fellowdiips are not to be used as scholarships to defray medical school tuition. The policy of each iiBtitution in regard to number of Junior Fellows, the value of the stipend, and other features of general importance is to be subject to review by the Foundation. Formal discussions concerning renewal of general research funds diould be completed 1 to 3 years in advance of termination. If an application for general research funds is refused, the applicant ( iiBtifeutiqn may appeal directly to the board of trustees for a review. In aloeating general research funds, the Foundation is to consider both the imnawate needs and promise of development of the applicant institutions, and is to take cognizance of the effects of such fimds upon the support of medical schools by their parent institutions. Equipment purchased under general research funds is to become the property of the institution to which the block grant is made. b- Fmamshijm. — Fellowships are to be awarded by the Foundation, for a period of 1 to 3 years, to approved applicants having the M. D., Pb.D., or DD.S. degree or equivalent attainment, to enable the ledipients to acquire research training, to undertake research, to learn £f>eaal techniques, or to pursue studies in related sciences. Fellow- may be renewed for a period up to 3 years, but only in excep- tional instances should the term of a fellowship exceed 6 years. The holder of a feIlowshij> is to be publicly designated as a '^Fellow of ttie National Foundation for Mescal Ke In the initial selection oi Fellows, potentialities for development of leadership in medicine should be weighed as heavily as past per- formance in research work. Fellows are to be encouraged to take further work in the fundamental sciences to remedy any deficiencies in a contemplated research career, but fellowships are not to be used to provide residencies, or primarily for obtaining postgraduate degrees or W qualifying for Certification by the Specialty Boards. Fellowships are primarily intended to enable men to receive re- search training and to engage in active research, but they should include experience in teaching or the clinical care of patients, as these exercises are essential to balanced research training and are imperative if a Fellow is to fit himseK for maximal usefulness in medicine or the medical sciences. Fellowship stipends are to he determined by the Foundation with due consideration of university salaries paid persons with equivalent training and experience, and to the desirability of encouraging rela- tively senior men to devote themselves to research. Research expenses of a Fellow may be met by the Foundation. If an institution matches insurance or annuity payments by its faculty, a similar payment is to be added by the Foundation to the Fellow’s stipend. A fellowship is to lapse automatically if a FeUow transfers to another institution without approval by the Foimdation. c. Grants-in-aid. — On application, grants-in-aid extending for 1 to 10 years may be made to universities, medical schools, or other nonprofit scientific institutions for the support of specific projects or of specified investigators. Applications for grants-in-aid are to carry the endorsement of the applicant institution. Formal dis^ cussions concerning renewal should be completed prior to the begin- ning of the last ttod of the period of the grant. Reasonable overhead expenses may be included in the financial statement accompanying a r^u^t for a grant, but overhead pay- ments are not to be automatic. Reports are to be submitted under each grant as required by the Foundation. Equipment purchased under a grant is to become the property of the institution to which the grant is made. If a request for a grant or for the extension of a grant is refused, the applicant institution may appeal directly to the board of trustees for a review. Coordination and Initiation of Research The Foundation is to consider methods designed to stimnlate re- search, to improve research conditions in institutions where it is now not well developed, to effect coordination among investigators working in a common field, and to facilitate publication, dissemination, and experimental application of scientific information. tee Foimdation is to initiate and support such new research work as may be indicated, but it is not itself to engage in research. Its int^rative and catalytic efforts are to be carried out by rewmmenda- tion and invitation rath^ than by direction. 63 3. Reports The Foundation is to report annually to the President, in the form he requmte, on the progress of work carried out under its authority. With the Prffiident*s approval, all or part of the annual report is to be publish^. 4. Authority To Modify Procedure The oi^anizatioE and responsibility of the Foundation are to be dinned as broadly as possible. The authority to make and alter specific r^ulations and to experiment in procedures for fostering m^cai r^earch is to be incorporated in the charter of the Foimda- tion. 64 Appendix 3 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE TABLE OF CONTENTS Fa^ Letter of transmittal 66 Members of the Committee 66 Preface 67 Summary 6S A National Research Foundation 69 Research carried on by the Federal Government - 69 Environmental aids to industrial research 70 Chapter L Introduction - 71 II. Present status and trends in American science 75 A. The nature of scientific research 75 B. I>evelopment of ^ientifie research in the United States 77 C. The national research budget 79 * IIL Scientific research in American universities and colleges 84 A. The university as a research environment 84 B. Form of aid to universities 87 * IV- Scientific research in the Government service 93 A. Suggested reforms 94 ^ V. Aids to industrial research and technolcgy 101 A- Assistance to technical clinics for small busing enterprise 101 B. Grants to nonprofit industrial institutes for funda- mental research^ 102 C. Encouragement for new scientific enterprises 103 D. Strenrthening the patent system 103 ^ VL Taxation and research 104 A. Present tax treatment of research and development expenditures — 104 B. Recommendations for legislative action 105 C. Broad tax considerations 106 " VII- International scientific cooperation 107 A. Support and sponsorship of international coop^ ative scientific enterprises^, 107 - VIII. A National Research Foundation 109 A. Oiganisation 109 B. Powers aad reepoiMpbililaes 110 C. Patent polefes Foundation — 111 Appendix A. library aldsi 112 Appendix B- Analym of university res^rch expenditures— 116 , LEHER OF TRANSMITTAL April 16, 1945. Dbab De. Bush: It is with satisfaction that I hand you herewith a copy of the report of the Committee on Science and 4he Public Welfare. We have had a number of meetings with good attendance and excellent discussion. We have unanimously agreed on practically all ^ential points. If the report aids in any degree in completing the task assigned you by the late President Eoosevelt all members of the committee, I feel sure, will be gratified. Sincerely yours, Isaiah Bowman, Chairman^ Committee on Science and the Public Welfare, De. Vannevae^ Bush, Director^ Office of Scientific Research and Develo^entj 16th and P Streets NW. Washington^ Z>. (7. MEMBERS OF THE COMMIUEE Isaiah Bowman, Chairman, President, Johns Hopkins University. John T. Tate, ^ce Chairman, Researdi Professor of Physics, Uni- versity of Minn^ta. W. Rupert Madauiin, Secretary, Pmfessor of Economics, Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. Oliver E. Buckley, President, Telephone Laboratories. Waiter C. Coffey, President, University of Minnesota. C^car S. Cox, Deputy Administrator, Fore%n Economic Administra- tion. Bradley Dewey, Pr^ident. Dewey & Almy Chemical Company. Qarence A. Dyfcstra, Provc^t, University of California at Los Angeles, Caryl P. Haskins, Director, Haskins Laboratories. Edwin H. Land, President and Director of Research, Polaroid Cor- poration. Charl^ E. MacQuig^ Dean of Engineering, Ohio State University. Harold G. Moulton, President, Brookings Institution. J. Hugh O'Donnell, President, Notre Dame University, it Professor of Physics, Columbia Univa:sity (recipient of Nobel Award). Wmm Weaver, Director for Natural Sciences, Rockefeller Founda- tion. Wilson, Chairman of the Board, Standard Oil Company of Willmm E. Wrafcher, Director, U. S. Geolc^cal Survey, Department §6 PREFACE Dr. Isaiah Bowman was named by Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, as chairman of a committee to consider this question raised by President Roosevelt in his letter of November 17, 1944, to Dr, Bush: ^‘What can the Gov- ernment do now and in the future to aid research activities by public and private organizations? The proper roles of public and of private research and their interrelationship should be carefuUy considered,*^ The Bowman Committee has confined its attention to research activities in the natural sciences, engineering, and agriculture. Clinical medicine has been considered by another committee. The support of the social sciences, it is believed, represents an important problem in iteelf which should be handled as a separate issue. In analyzing the task assigned to the Bowman Committee, the project was divided into the following major questions: 1. What should the Government do to assist research in uni- versities and nonprofit research institutes? 2. What should the Government do to assist scientffic rmerndt conducted by the Government itself? 3. What ^ould the Government do to assist research in in- dustry? 4. WTiat changes, if any, should be made in our present tax structure to stimulate industrial research? 5. What policy should the Government follow to enc^^urag© greater international interchange of scientific knowledge and engineering art after the war? 6. WTiat are the proper roles of public and private research? The Committee was divided into working groups to consider each of these questions except the last. The whole report is concerned with the basic problem of the proper roles of public and private agencies in scientific research. The analyses undertaken by the worl^g groups have been combined into a final report which is submitted herewith. In addition to numerous meetings of the subcommittees the main Committee has held three full meetup, the fiirst of which was devoted to resolving tihie problem into its major parts, the second to discu^ing tile concept of the Federal Government in relation to r^arch, and the last to considering tiie recximmeadations of the subcommittee. 67 SUMMARY Interest in the question of Federal aid to research reflects wide- spread recognition by the American people that the security of a modem nation depends in a vital way upon scientific research and , technoIogic«d progress. It is equally clear that public health, higher standards of hving, conservation of national resources, new manu- facturing which creates new jobs and investment opportunities— in short, the pros|)erity, well-being and progress of the American Nation— all require the continued flow of new scientific knowledge. Even if a nation’s manpower declines in relative numbers, even if its geographical frontiers become jSxed, there always remains one inexhaustible national resource — creative scientific research. In view of the importance of science to the Nation, the Federal Government, by virtue of its charge to provide for the common defense and general welfare, has the responsibility of encouragi^ and aiding scientific progress. It has recognized this responsibility by providing research laboratories within the structure of government, by providii^ a climate of law within which industry could progress on its own initiative, and by making limited appropriations to certain tjp^ of educational institutions. Study of the present status of re- has shown convincingly that certain basic parts of our research steictee require increased financial support. Since the evidence is. dear that private sources cannot assume the entire burden, the com- mittee has been forced to the conclusion that an increased measure of ^act Federal aid is necessary. We believe that it is possible to devise methods whereby great benefits to research may be achieved by siMsh aid without samficing the freedom essential for scientific advance or the academic independence of our traditional institutions. We therefore urge that the Federal Government take a more active interest in promoting scientific r^aaxeh, and in assuring that the Nation gain therefrom the benefits of increased security and increased welfare. We are convinced that the most effective way for the Federal Government to serve th^ purpose is to provide to our educational institutions and research institute support for basic research and training for r^earch. By so doic^, the Government will increase the flow of new knowledge and the supply of young scientists trained in research. It is on this new knowledge that applied science must build, and it is from the ranks of those trained in research that the leaders in applied smence must come. If this new knowledge and an ad^uate supply of trained men are provided, it is our opinion that the ordinary course of industrial ^tivity can be relied upon to convert to practical application in industry most of the advances made in research. However, we be- lieve that in certain instances measure can and should be devised to ep)efite the transition from scientific discovery to technological appleation. To this end we recommend that procedure be devised for supplying research information to small companies and stimulating them in the application of the latest technology. In the international sphere the lack of any official Federal support for scientific meetings or experimental programs organized on an international scale has been a frequent source of embarrassm^t and difficulty. By providing official recognition and financial support to such undertakings the Government could do much to facilitate scien- tific interchange and promote international good will. A National Research Foundation We believe that our national and international needs and re^onsi- bilities in the field of science require the creation of a new Federal instrumentality. We therefore recommend that a National Eesearch Foundation be created for the promotion of scientific research and of the applications of research to enhance the seciirity and welfare of the Nation. The control of the Foundation should be in the hands of a board of trustees. This board should be appointed by the President of the United States from a panel nominated by the National Academy of Sciences. The Foundation shall be empowered, among other things, to: 1. Distribute funds in support of scientific research in educa- tional and nonprofit research institutions, such research to be wholly imder the control of such institutions. 2. Initiate and finance, in appropriate a^enci^, research proj- ects for which existing facilities are tmav^able or inadecjuate. 3. Establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences. 4. Promote dissemination of scientific and technical informa- tion. 5. Support international cooperation in science by providing financial aid for international congresses, worldwide associations of scientific societies and scientific research programs organised on an international basis, 6. Devise methods of improving the transition between pure research and its practical applications in industry. Research Carried on by the Federal Government Research carried on directly by the Federal Government repr^ents an important part of our total research activity and needb to be strengthened and expanded after the war. Expanmon, however, should be limited to fields of inquiry and s^vice which are of public imTOrtance and are not adequacy carried on by private enterprise. To increase the effectivene^ of research done within the various departments and laboratories of Government a*number of important dmiges in existing practice are dmirable. 1. The most important sin^e factor in scientific and tedmical work is the quality of personnel employed. Separate and distinct procedure for recamiting and classifying srientific persqnnd 'are warranted by the exacting tedbnical requirements in tiiese services. No one <iiange from current practice would do more to improve the qudi^ of r^eardk conducted by the Government 69 than to establish a separate branch of the CivE Service for scientific and technical positions* 2. A general up-grading of positions and salaries in the scientific services of Government, accompanied by a careful selection of new talent, would be a major contribution to improvement of the quality of r^earch conducted by the Government. 3. Eesearch programs of Government should be assured in terms of their long-run objectives. Appropriations by Congress to the principal Government scientific departments should be made in lump sums for broad programs of research extending over several years. Appropriations within the assured sum might tlien be made available as at present in the annual budget. 4. A permanent science advisory board should be created to consult with Government agencies and to advise the executive and legislative branches of government as to the policies and budgets of Government agencies engaged in scientific research. Environmental Aids to Industrial Research The structure of Federal taxation and the operation of the patent system have an important impact on the research and development policies of industry. In designing postwar taxes, consideration should be given to increasing incentives to industrial research. The proper teeatment of research costs for tax purposes should receive clear l^islative definition. Specific recommendations on tbia point are included in the maia body of the report. 1®. Chapter I INTRODUCTION President Eoosevelt has asked: IVliat can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activiti^ by public and private organizations? * * * The information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by the OflSce of Scientific Reseajrch and Develop- ment and by the thousands of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national health, the creation of new enterprises brin^g new jote, and the betterment of the national standard of living. I^ew frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller and more fruitful life. The President's request reflects widespread recognition by the imerican people t^t the security of a modem nation depends in a ¥ital way upon scientific research and technological progr^. It is ^ually clep that public health, Mgha: standards of living, wnserva- tion of national resources, new jobs and investment opportuniti^ — short, the prosperity, well-being and process of the American Nation — all require the continued flow of new scientific knowledge. Even if a nation’s manpower declines in relative numbers, even if its g^graphical frontiers become fixed, there always remains one inexhaustible national resource — creative scientific r^aarch. The advanced state of technology in the American e(M)nomy, of which we are justly proud, could not have been realized without sound institutional foundations. Our public and private universities and nonprofit research institutes, our industrial r^earch laboratories, the research agencies operated by the State and Federal Governments, all constitute part of a cooperative pattern within which tremendous achievements have already been made. We are confident that within that same framework even greater developments in sciencje will mark the future. The continued progress of science is a matter of the high^t national importance. The Federal Government, by virtue of its charge to provide for the common defense and gener^ welfare, has the r^pon- sibilty of encourag^ and aidio^ sudi progr^. It has recognized this responsibility in the |mst oy providing research laboratori^ wittdn the structure of govOTunent, by |>roviding a climate of law within which industry could advance on its own initiative, and by making limited appropriations to certain tyx)es of educational and res^rch institutions. As far as the committee can determine, there is no major dissent from the view that the first two methods of aiding Ihe timr^s' com^e, howevw/for a' careful evalmtion of the que^^ tioiw rw^d by direct Federal «dd to private institutions. Our uni- 71 vemti^ deaxly stand in need of increased financial support if tliey are to strengtlien their basic contributions to the scientific life of the Nation. Financial aid may also be required to speed up the transition between basic discoveries in university laboratories and their practical industi^ applications. The committee has therefore felt compelled to examine from the standpoint of public policy the question: a substantial increase in Federal financial aid to scientific research in educational and other nonprofit research institutions necessary and durable?” If the nec^ity were not clearly demonstrable, several considera- tions might argue for the und^irability^ of such Federal support. Th^ center upon the fear that Federal aid might lead to centralized mntroL It is the firm conviction of the committee that centralized control of r^earch by any small group of persons would be disastrous whether such persons were in government, in industry, or in the universities. There might be a danger, too, that increased Federal aid would discourage existing sources of ^ancial support. Private individuals might lose interest in contributing to researcb institutions and the great foundations might turn their attention* to other fields. The States might reduce the support given their lai^e universities. These varied sources of support have contributed materially to the development of vigorous centers of independent initiative throughout the United States and prevented control by any one group. The committee has had to weigh these considerations against an mnijw of the adequacy of the over-all support for science in America relative to the ne^ of society. Our national pre-eminence in the fields of appEed r^earch and technology should not blind us to the truth that, with r^pect to pure res^rdb. — the discovery of funda- mental new knowledge and basic mentific principles — ^America has occupied^ a mcomdsTj place. Our spectacular development of the automobile, the airplane, and radio obscures the fact that they were al based on fundamental discoveries made in nineteenth-century Europe, From Europe also came formulation of most of the laws governing the transformation of energy, the physical and chemical structure of matter, the behavior of electiicity, light, and magnetism. In recOTt years the United States has made progress in the field of pure sdence, but an examination of the relevant statistics suggests iJiat our ^orts in the field of applied science have increased much faster m tiiat the proportion of pure to applied research continues to dwrease. Several reasons make it imperative to increase pure research at this stage in our Mstory. First, the intellectual bants of continental Europe, from which we fonneriv borrowed, have become bankrupt through the ravages of war. ito long^ can we count upon those source for fundamental science. S^jond, in this modem age, more than ever before, pure research is the pace-mak«r of teclmological pr«^e^. In the nmetoenth century, Yankee mechanical ingenuity, building upon the baric discoveries of Europe^ sdence, could greatly advance the technical arts. Today the rituation is different. Future pre^re^ will be most striking in those highly complex fields — elec- lioniiB, aerodynamics, chemistry — ^wMdi are based directiy upon the foundations of modem science. In the next generation, technolo^cal advance and b^ic scientific discovery wiH pe inseparable; a nation which borrows its baric knowledge will be hopel^Iy handicapped in W the race for innovation. The other world powers, we know, intend to foster scientific research in the future. Moreover, it is part of our democratic creed to affirm the intrinsic cultural and aesthetic worth of man's attempt to advance the frontiers of knowledge and under- standing. By that same creed the prestige of a nation is enhanced by its contributions — ^made m a spirit of friendly cooperation and competition — to the world-wide battle against ignorance, want, and disease.^ The increasing need for the cultivation of science in this country is only too app^ent. Me we equipped to meet it? Tradition^ support from private gifts, from endowment income, from grants by the large foundations, and from appropriations by State I^isla- tur^ cannot meet the need. Research in the natural sciences and engineerinig is becoming increas^ly. costly; and the inflationary impact of the war is likely to heighten the ^ancial burden of uni- versity research. The committee has considered whether industry could or should assume most of the burden of support of fundament^ research or whether other adequate sources of private assistance are in sight. The answer appears to be in the negative. The committee has therefore b^jome convinced that an increased measure of Federal aid to ’scientific r^earch is necessary. Means must be found for administering such aid without incurring central- ked control or discouraging private support. Basically this problem is but one example of a series of similar prob- lems of government in a democracy. Many of our important pontical decisions involve the nec^sity of balancii^ irreducible natioi^ functions against the free play of individual initiative. It is the belief of this committee that if certain basic safeguards are observed in de- signing a plan for Government support to science, grmt beasts can be adbievm without loss of mitiative or freedom. The experience of the land^rant collies represmts an important precedent. The scale of Fede^ aid has been modest but has led to very s^iificanl results e^ecially in agriculture; it has not lad to dominaMon by smafl groups; it h^ not been capricious and uncertain. On the contrary, it has progre^ed on a slowly expanding scale for over 80 years. No evidence has been brought before the committee that this sort of Federal aid has discouraged other sources of support. The land-grant colleges are example of harmonious cooperation among State and Federal Governments, private individuals, and industry, American experience with support of higher education by State and local governments has been extremely satisfactory, our vigorous Stete universiti^ standing as impressive testimomals. The committee forces that an increased measure of Federal sup- port will raise new problems. We have, therefore, carefuHy conadered the possibility of increasing Federal aid for sdaitlfic r^earch without, at the same time, introducing undesiraMe patemalifflu. For, in oid^ to be fruitful, scientific research must be free — ^free from the influence of pr^^ire groups, free from the necessity of produong immediate practical results, free from dictation by any ceniral boMul ^ Many have hem. impre^ed by the way in which certain fields of appli^ science have l^efited, dinring the war, from an increased measure of planned coordination mkd direction. It has thus b een very natural to su|^po^ that p^c^me research would ben^t equafly from the apfimaticm cd,, similar methods. Thers are, of conrse, types of 73 scieDtific inquiry that require planning and coordination, and a large degree of control is inexdtable and proper iii applied research. How- e¥er, there are seyeral reasons why pure science in peacetime cannot wisely or usefully adopt some of the procedures that have worked so wel during the war. War is an enterprise that lends itself almost ideally to planning and regimentation, because immediate ends are more rigid^ prescribed than is possible in other human activities. Much of the success of science during the war is an unhealthy success, won by forcing applications of science to the disruption or complete displacement of that basic activity in pure science which is essential to continuing applications. Finally, and perhaps most inaportant of all, scientists willingly suffer during war a de^ee of direction and con- trol which they womd fed intolerable and stultifying in times of peace. It is the belief of this committee that increased support of research in American universities and nonprofit institutes wiU provide the most positive aid to science and technology. But we do not believe that any pr^am is better than no program*— that an ill-devised distribu- tion of Federal funds will aid the growth of science. Our concrete pro- posals seek to augment the quality as well as the quantity of scientific research. We bSieve that there are historical precedents of Govern- ment aid to research, both in this coxmtry and abroad, which show the po^ibUity of providing, within the framework of sound administrative practice, sustained nonpolitical grants which would operate in such a manner as to call forth from emting institutions even greater initia- tive, effort, and accomplishment. The organimtion or instrument finally set up should not attempt to play the role of an all-seeing, all-powerful planning board trying to guide in detai the normal ^owth-processes of science. The fimt and most essential requirement is that the groups administering a program of research assistance be composed of mm of the highest inte^ty, ability, and ^roerience, with a thorough understanding of the problems of science. The committee believes that an independent Govern- ment body, created by the Congress, free from hampering restrictions, staffed with the ablest personnel obtainable, and empowered to give sustained and far-sighted assistance to science with assurance of continuing support, would constitute the best possible solution. It is our beh^ timt the desired purposes can best be served and the p<^ible dangers minimked by centering the responsibility for this program in a new organization, a Nation^ Eesearcb Foundation, whose function should be the promotion of scientific research and of the applications of research to enhance the security and welfare of the Nation. 14 Chapter li PRESENT STATUS AND TRENDS IN AMERICAN SCIENCE To aid in formulating policies of assistance to research, it will be helpful first to analyze the important types of scientific activity and to sketch the development of the principcd types of American scientific institutions. J A. THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Scientific research may be divided into the following broad cate- gories: (1) pure research, (2) background research, and (3) applied rese^ch and development. The boundaries between them are by no means dear-cut and it is frequently difficult to assign a given inv^tigation to any single category. On the other hand, typical instances are easily recognized, and study of them reveals that each category requires different institutional arrangements for maximum devdopment. I. Pure Research Pure research is research without specific practical ends. It results in general knowledge and imderstanding of nature and its laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a la^e number of important practicd problems, though it may not give a specific ^lution to any one of them. The pure scientist may not be at all interested in the practical applications of hds work; yet the devdop- ment of important new industries depends primarily on a continuing vigorous progress of pure sdence. One of the pecularities of pure science is the variety of paths which lead to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries have come as a result of experiments undertaken with quite different purposes m mind. Statistically it is certain that important and hi^y useful discoveries wil rmidt from some fraction of the work undertaken; but the results of any one particular investi^tion cannot be predicted with accuracy. The unpredictable nature of pure science make® desirable the provision of rather special drcmnstances for its pursuit. Pure re- search dmiands from its foEowers the freedom of mind to look at family facts from unfamiliar points of view. It do^ not always lend HbM to organized and is refractory to direction from dbove.' In fact, aowhere fe Ih© principle of froedom more im- 75 portant for significant achievement. It shoiJd be pointed out, how- ever, that many branches of pure science increasingly involve the cooperative efforts of numerous individuals, and expensive capital equipment shared by many workers. By general consent the discoveries of pure science have for centuries been Wnediately consi^ed to the public domain and no valid prec^ent exists for restocting the advantages of knowledge of this sort to any inchvidual, corporation, State, or Nation. All the people are the beneficiaries. Governments dedicated to the public welfare, therefore, have a responsibility for encouraging and supporting the production of new faowledge on the broadest possible basis. In the united States this responsibility has long been recognized. ^ 2. Background Research The preparation of accurate topographic md geologic maps, the collection of meteorological data, the determination of physical and chemical constants, the description of species of animals, plants, and minerals, the establishment of standards for hormones, drugs, and X-ray therapy; these and similari types of scientific work are here grouped togemer under the term background research. Such back- ground knowledge provides essential data for advances in both pure and applied sdence. It is also widely used by the en^eer, the phy- sician and the public at large. In contrast to pure science, the objec- tives of this type of research and the methods to be used are reason- ably dear before an invest%atioii is undertaken. Thus, oomprehax- sive programs may be mapped out and the work carried on by rela- tivdy laige numbers of trained personnel as a coordinated effort. Sdentific work of tto characto is necessarily carried on in all types of research organizations — ^in univerriti^, in industry, and ih Govern- ment bureaus. Much of it evolve as a nec^sary byproduct either of applied research or of development. Only very rarely, however, dom the knowledge obtained emerge in patentable . form and the public welfare is usually best served by prompt publication of the results. Th^e seems to be litlle disagreement with the view that these sur- Sand descrip^ns of basic facts and the determination of stand- ^ proper fidds for Goveriment action and that centralization of certain aspects of this work in Federal laboratories carries many advantages. There are lew private organizations equipped to carry out more than a ®uaH fraction of the researeh needed in these fidds. And it is obvious, for example that topographic maps are most useful when majB for the entire country observe similar rules in r^ard to s^e, contour lin^, conv^tionai rnarkin^ for roads, dwdlings, etc. Similarly, standard units for hormone smoiid be l^ed on r^orm test procedures and be slated, so far as is posdMe, in uniform units. The Federal Governmmt has recognized responsibilities in principle and the Bureau of Standarcm serves as an exc^ent ekample of how such work can be <»rried out most effidentiy. Becent technical advance ill sudb fidds as ^mthetic dremiafay and industrial biology have r^ulted m a siream of new compcMnds and materials too rapid for present laboratories to catalogue. Many sub- stances of gimt po^tial usefuln^ are eithar i»mpletdy unsown, or thdr propwti^ inadequately described. Ckmiplex unnerals 76 as coal, and a wealth, of agricoltiiral products, are composed of chemical compounds, any one of which may become the basis of a new industry. What is needed is enough knowledge about their potentialities to justify the private investment necessary for their practical application. If the problem is left entirely in private hands, progrm may be very slow. At present, only the la^er industrial laboratories have the capacity to engage extensively in such research. It seems desirable, therefore, for the Government to arrange for work of this sort, either in its own laboratories or in outside institutions, and to make the r^ults of this research generally available in a systematic manner. < 3. Applied ResearcK and Development Applied research and development differs in several important r^pects from pure science. Since the objective can often be d^nitely mapped out beforehand, the work lends itself to organized effort. If successful, the r^ults of applied research are of a definitely practical or commercial value. The very heavy expenses of such work are, therefore, undertaken by private organizations only in the hope of ultimately recovering the funds invested. In several fields, admittedly, such as agriculture and in various special industries where the individual producing units are small and widely dispersed, the presence of a profit motive does not ensure the existence of ade5[uate r^earch and development. The substantial research work initiated by the Department of Agriculture has devel- oped in response to these special n^ds. The distinct^n between applied and pure research is not a hard and fast one, and industrial scientists may tackle specific problems from broad fundamental viewpoints. But it is important to emphasaze that there is a perverse law governing research: Under the procure for immediate results, and ml^ dmberate polid^ are set up to guard against this, rtsearck mmriMp irwm out fwe. The moral m dear: It is pure research which deserves and require special protection and specially assured support B. DEVELOPMENT OF SaENTIFlC RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES During the colonial period of American history, scientific work was carried on in random, sporadic fashion, and for the moat jwi outside the universities. Eranklin and Jefferson are outstandii^ examp]^ of tile t3rpe of gifted ^oaateur whose Muence uixm Am, mean aamce continued to be fdt wdl into the nineteeath ©eatay. In the first dec^es of &e Republic, the older American edi^ea began to give sdence increased attention in tiie cniiwsiiluin. ^ But despite the presence on their facidties eff sudh oulstandii^ individuala as the Siijmans, Louis Aga^, and Joseph Henry, it cannot be conduded that tile collies were active centers of researdiy m that science reedved much ftmphasaa in ii^titutions which, if they wwe not ^ eisdusivel^ cmisceoaed with rel%ious instruction as heretofore, were still devc^ed, to^ tiie ide^ of a H^ral education the linm ol skid (hfcsdcal and Mteary tr^tion. With the collie enviroOmeiit inimical or at least cool towiffd the growth of sdentSc re^arch, neith^ GovMDaneiit suppcfft nor private 71 endowment was available in the United States for the promotion of pure research until late in the nineteenth century. This is in marked contrast to the principal European coxmtries where, almost without exception, science was directly supported by the governments. Grad- ually, in response to a steadily increasing need, the Federal Govern- ment established the scientific bureaus that it needed to fulfill its obligations to the public. During the course of the century it created the Coast and Geodetic Surv^, the Naval Observatory, the Depart- mmt of Agriculture, and the Geol<^ical Survey. In 1836, to cite an early example of Federal support of a scientific venture, the Wilkes Exploring Expedition was authorized “to expand^ the bounds of science and to promote knowledge.” But the practical nature of all these activities is evident. Despite several eloquent expres^ons by scientific men of the important long-run utility of sponsoring pure science, the Congress turned a deaf ear to all proposals for creating scientific institutions having anything but limited and strictly utili- tarian purposes. _ Wasliington’s plan for a national university, and the various suggestions for a Government-sponsored academy or a national institution had the support of public figures like Jeffemon, Madison, and John Quincy Adams but were unpopular in Congress and were often strenuously opposed by the older private colleges. If Government support for science was not forthcoming, neither was supi^rt from private gifts or bequests. It is significant that the first considerable sum for the support of pure science came from a foreigner, the Englishman Jam^ Smithson, with whose bequest Congress — after d^ating its acceptance and disposition foir nearly 10 years — created the Smithsonian Institution. As a result of the profound forces which were converting America in the last decade of the nineteenth century froih an e^entiaUy backward agricultural Nation to a world power, changes took place in our attitudes toward science and learning and toward the encouragement that should properly be accorded them. The State imiversities and land-grant collies grew and prospered through generous public sup- port. Science ^so became one of the beneficiaries of the private fortune built up in the later nineteenth century. Whereas earlier it had been evident that only the Government could assume the burden of erecting and supporting an astronomical observatory, there were BOW men like Jam^ lick with fortunes large enough to build and endow such expensive centers of r^earch. Equally important were the contributions of private phaanthropy in developing universities and in the direct support of t'esearch through the creation of nonprofit science institutions and philanthropic foundations. Two of our b^t-known privaldj endowed institutions devoted to pure research, the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Rocke- feller Institute, were created shortly after the turn of the century. From the same gigantic fortunes stemmed the Rockrfdler Foundation and the Carnegie Cot^ration. Their tremendous contributions to the progress of sQeatiflc r^earch, not only in iumerica, but through^ out the world, cannot be exaggerated. The latter part of the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries witnemed the development of the American medical schoofe, which today serve as research centers not only for applied or practical medicine but for fundamental research in many oiological problems which are basic to medicine. The medical schools appear to have m beeii particularly attractive objects of private philantiiropy- Various factors, such as the regulation of standards by the profession at large and the active interest of two or three of the largest foundations, have given to the medical schools of the country a uniformly advanced status not enjoyed by other divisions of our universities. In fact, only in the case of medical schools can the United States be said to excel an other countries in the number of first-rate research institutions per unit of population, Almost equally significant is the growth of the Federal Government's own scientific bureaus. The existing agenda and departmente, specially the Department of Agriculture, underwent an extraordinary devalopmmt. _ An outstanding feature was the expanding program of grante-in-aid to the State agricultural experiment stations. The first decad^ of the twentieth century saw the creation of a number of new scientific bureaus and laboratories: the Bureau of Mines, the Bureau of Standards, and the Nationa,! Institute of Health. The first World War led to the creation of tlje principal service laboratories, the Naval Eesearch Laboratory, for example, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, By 1932 the total Govern- ment expenditure for research had risen to over 40 million dollars, more than double the figure for 1922. But DO factor in the gradual emergence of American science from its dependent state is more striking than the growth of research labo- ratories in industry. Prior to 1880 there were few, if any, commercial laboratori^ worthy of the name; but in the last decades of the nine- t^nth century powerful new industries, especially in the electrical field, grew out of basic twimological discoveries and the inventive genius of men like Bel, Edison, and Elihu Thom^n. Firms in these new industries almost from the outset adopted the policy of maintain- rug their lead by energetic programs of scientific and technological research resultmg in patents bas^ in large part on the work of their own laboratori^. Tbe first World War provided a further stimulus to the growth of commercial laboratories by revealmg the inadequacies of our position in industrial rm^rch as compared to Germany, especiaDy in the chemical field. Much of our present chemical industry, together with its vast research potential, ^ew up in response to needs which were demonstrated in the war, aided by the avalability of patents seized from their former German owners. C THE NATfONAL RESEARCH BUDGET The over-al picture of the development of resemtsh in the United Stat^, as reflected in the changed structure and iM^nitude of the national research expenditures of the last 15 years, is diown in table I and in the corresponding figure I. Since statistical infomiatiom is nece^arily fragmemtary and dep^d- mbiipon arbitrary definitions, most of the estimates are subject k> a very oonmderable margin of error. Neverthdl^, the foliowing generalizations seem warranted: (1) Of the three principal groups engaged in w«arch, private indus- try coiilrifeut^ by W the larg^t porlioa of the totel national exf^d- itures, witii the Government coining next m$A the ^ucational institulicms last* ' '' T9 (2) Keseardbi expmditures of industry, Gk>vemment, and industrial institute have bmi exp^ding considerably more rapidly (fig. I), UmB. researdi in universities and science institutes. During ti.6 war, the Government expanded its research budget from $69,000,000 in 1940 to $720,000,000 in 1944. Not all of t^ large increase took place in Grovemment laboratories. Substantial Table I SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH EXPENDITURES^AND NATIONAL INCOME Year Natioiml income^ Industry * Noninrofit industrial research institutes * Government (Fedanl and State)* CoDe^ and umv)^- sities* Recearch Lc^titutes* Total sdentifLc research ex- pmditures 1920, MUlkm $74, 200 59, 400 60.700 71, 6 00 72, 100 76,000 81,600 80, 100 81. 700 87.200 77.300 60.300 42.900 42.200 49,500 54,400 62.900 7% 500 64,600 7«k8S9 7^809 96.900 122,200 1^>400 160,700 Tiumsands $29, 468 37,400 44.000 50.000 58.000 64.000 70.000 75,928 88.000 106, OCK) 116,000 131,320 120. 000 110, 268 124.000 1 136,000 152.000 : 160,000 1 177,168 i 200,000 [ 23 4000 Tkomands Thtmands Thousands Ihousands Thousands 1921 1922. » 1£SS $15, 615 16,336 18,087 16, 995 17, 119 17, 757 22,825 24 066 26,945 40^081 1925 1926_.- 1927. 1928 1929 1930 1931 $560 1,240 990 740 1,540 2,470 2,530 3,580 4080 5,000 6,110 9,139 14079 $20,353 $5, 212 5, 218 5, 159 4 887 4 767 4785 4 701 4 63S 4 596 4 531 4549 $166, 193 19^ 1933 24840 191, 0 70 1934 1935 22,243 25, 328 33,891 40, 786 49, 382 19,286 171, 836 1M6 218, 122 19^ 1938 10.39 ^ 28, 496 263,722 iMcnMi 69, 136 207, 259 332, 151 561,507 71% 813 31, 450 345, 245 1941 1942 39, 575 1943 1944, t Stum Naiiimai Mcome md Ms WoL I (Hew National Bmmii of 'E&xmAs p. W. : * Nattettl EescMxrees 0»K»laer M^edtdH-A Watkmi Maomee, VoL II, MdmMeM (Washing- In, Doc^ 1938), p. I^ebmle^ O. aiid Fkid, P., MdmtrkH Beseardk and TedhmUm CPfifcaeMato, w PA, Nataoeaf Fioiaot^ Eep. No. M-4, Jan. 1940), p. 65. * IzK^EKfes tbe hodmtr&kl Teamrdh io^itates support prhnaTlly by contribntions finm indnstiy. Esti- ntatod $iM)0Q<,OlDO spent by zionpmfit industrial research fostitutes for 1939 and extrapolated for other years by the Batt^ Memorial Institute figures giTSn in thu^ pobHicatioii Rsteardk in Action (Columbus, 1944). * Bi^>ort on Federal Gkmrnmmtezpenditmcs cm sdmtxfileic^^ Exclrales Federal grants to agrurd tural ezperimimt 3 peroent oi Federal gcrccniment eo^penchtees estteated as equivalent to scto- tifiiC research mpeoditures by the States^ exclusive of their grants to agilcciltDral exp^lment stations and eollegBS and whic^ are iiwtoded in the ^pendituies by the Mter. 1940-44 Federal Gtovem- meet %ures dc net hn^sde grants to ‘*educati(mal institutions and loundatiom.” * The National Eesooxcee Committee reported that $SQ/)00JX)0 were spent on research by ah colleges and ladveKSities in 1935-^ Based cn the siirvc3rs by the Bowmm Clomirnttee, it was estimated oi tihis were fur expenditure on research in the naharal scimices. The trend shown in research axpendltures of s large sample of universities and oolleg^ was used to extrapdlate for years other than ISSd. F%ni^ in- dude mots from fotmdations and from the Govemmmi fm agdcultural experiment sta£HXQS. * loraodes the endowed research institutes whidi are not connected with any industry nor an integral part of ar^ untvexsity, such as the Rockefeller hostitute of Medical Research, the Wistar Institute, the Oarnegle Ina^lfcatJon of Washington, the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, etc. The estimates have besen naade upon published information and questionnaires. The trend shown m the institutions on which oomplete mEormatioia was available was us^ to extrapolate the research expenditures iu other re- search It was estimated that six instttutes constituted 75 percent of the total expenditures. ; so sums went to industry and to the universities. This resulted in changing the trend of university research expenditures. The uni- versities spent $28,000,000 on research in 1938, while in 1943-44 the Office of Scientific Research and Development, alone, contracted for $90,000,000 of research m universities and colleges. Certain problems which should be considered in planning for a national postwar research program, and some guidance in meeting these problems, can be ascertamed from a study of the basic prewar trends and relationships. Particularly important is a study of the relative expenditures for pure and applied r^earch. According to the best available estimate, industry before the war devoted about 5 percent of its r^earch budget; or $9,000,000,^ and Government about 15 percent, or $7,500,000, to pure research. Colleges, univer- sities, and endowed research institutes spent 70 percent of their research budgets, or a total sum of nearly $23,000,000 in this way. Total national expenditure for pure science thus amounted to ap- proximately $40,000,000 while that for applied reached a figure of $227,000,000, a ratio of nearly 1 to 6. In England, where the de- velopment of industrial r^earch is, admittedly, very retarded, the corresponding ratio of pure to applied research is estimated at 1 to 1.2.^ In the decade from 1930 to 1940 applied research was expanding much more rapidly in the United States than was pure reseafch. During this period industrial research expanded by 100 percent and governmmtai research by 200 percent. Research in coU^es and uni- versiti^ increa^ by 50 percent, and the endowed reseai^dhi instiiutm (which were primarily devoted to pure research) declined by nearly 15 p^cent. It may be concluded, therefore, that since govemmentm and industrial expenditure is growing so rapidly, relative to that of &e universiti^, generous support to university r^earch is essential if the proi^rtion of pure to applied r^earch is to he maintained at anything like the previous relationship. This support will have to indlude substantial expenditures for capital facilities. The great dediae in capital outlays of privatdy supported institutions is very striking. ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR CAPITAL OUTLAY All Institutions of Hisher Education Million of Dollars ^ Mm ^ Bekmc* 81 Some portion of the new plant and equipment constructed during the last few years for the purpose of war r^earch can be converted to peacetime uses, Kevertheless, a considerable amount of new invest- ment wiE have to be undertaken after the war. There can be no doubt that such new construction could constitute one of the most productive kinds of public and private investment. Ne^ to the achievement of an adequate total volume of research activiti^ and the establishment of a proper proportion between its pure and applied phases, maintenance of a continuous and steady expan^on should be considered one of the most important objectives oi a far-ffli^led national research policy. Idle scimtific talent and a '82: retarded rate of scientific and technological progress have been the usual result of economic depression. Steady maintenance of a gen- erally high level of production and employment would naturally obviate the necessity of special stabilization policies in respect to r^earch and technological development. In the period of postwar transition and possible temporary recession, however, increased governmental expenditure may be necessa^ in order to offset the probable reduction of research activities in industry and in privatdy financed^ universities. Even if such a temporary recession should be much milder than the great depression of the early 1930^s, the absolute reduction in the national r^earch budget would be substantial since the general level of research is now much higher than it was 15 years ago. It is urged, therefore, that any national scientific foundation that is established should, as far as is consistent with sound and equitable policy, increase its grants for research in periods of depression 83 Chapter III SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN AMERICAN UNIVER- SITES AND COLLEGES A. THE UNIVERSITY AS A RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT Historical development has given the sanction of tradition to the prominent role played by the nniversities in the progress of pure science- The advent of the agricultural and engineering schools has also increased university interest and responsibility in the field of appled r^arch and development- Several factors combine to emphasize the appropriateness of uni- versities for research. The unive^ty as a whole is charged with the responsibility not only of maintaining the knowledge of the past and hnpartii^ it to students but of contributing to new knowle%e of aU kinds. The scientific worker is thus provided with colleagues who, though they may represent widely differing fields, all have an under- stenmi^ and i^preciation of the value of new knowledge. The long struggle for acadennc freedom has provided our univer- sities with the means of protecting the scientist from many of the immediate pressures of convention or prejudice. The university at its best provide its workers with a strong sense of group solidarity and security, plus a substantial degree of personal and intellectnm freedom. Bolh are essential in the development of new knowledge, much of which can arouse opposition because of its tendency to chal- lenge current beliefs and practices. 1. Present Status erf Pure Resecrdi in Ainercan Universities The rapid ecspansion of univ^sity education in this country during the present cmlropr is encouraging, hut it is wise to remember that a laige part of this increase has been devoted to undergraduate depart- ments and was ^pecialy designed to meet iucreased teaching re- sponsibiliti^. More than any other country in the world, the United Stat^ has undertaken to provide higher education on a broad base. There has been an even more remarkable percentage rate of growth in the number of students takiag p<^tgraduate courses in American universities. Devrfopment of research has not^ however, paralleled this rapid eximnsion in teaching. 2. Bockgrounds and Trends of Financial Support to Universities "nie support of our large private universiti^ aad collies has come | mmuiy &om endowmait gifts and foundation grtmts. The prodigious | 84 growth of our public institutioris has been supported by appropria- tions from tbe various legislatures. Since 1929 fundamental changes m tbe American tax and income structure and decline in interest rates have slowed down tbe rate of new private gifiB and endowment earn- ings. Students' fees constitute an increasing proportion of tbe total support of private institutions, and capital outlays in those univer- sities are definitely on tbe downgrade. At the same time research has become incres^ingly expensive and many State l^slatures are finding it difiBcult to provide adequate support for such activitim in their universities. The science departments of universities have found it nectary, in view of the decrease in gifts by individuals, to rely more upon in- dustrial corporations for assistance. This may imply tbe distortion of university research in the direction of short-range problems at the expense of more fundamental research. Also the freedom of the university scientist may be decreased by the introduction of some degree of commercial contml. Undoubtedly, if proper safeguards are maintained, cooperative research performed for industry in uni- versities can be expected to increase in the future to the advant^e of both parties concerned. But in this report which wishes steaduy to emplmske the need for freedom in science, it is well to speak of the need to guard against control of science by industry as well as against control of science by government. If university research is to keep pace with the growth of our econo- my, if able people are to be attracts to collie research and teadaing, it is dear that new sources of jSnandal support must be found. In- comes of other profusions — doctors, lawyers, dentists, enmneers, etc. — have increased considerably durii^ the war. The cost of living has risen markedly. For the first time the personal income tax bears sharply on the middle-income groups. And in the face of these factors, professorial earnings have been frozen at a level which was not considered to be overgenerous 15 years ago. A continuation of this trend will certainly have an Averse effect upon the recsniitoaut and retention of able university sdentists. 3- Immediate Effects of the War The above trends were in evidence even before the war. Yet in addition, the present conflict has added a number of very ^)edai problems which will dominate the situation for a number of y^rs to come. First, and most important, has been the virtual cessation of train- ing of new scientific personnel. As a result, we must simply accept as axiomatic the fact that there will be an insufficiency of folly trained yoimg scientists after the war and that it wiH take a wndderahle pOTod of time to repair the de&aeney. The war has also created a serious probl^ of reconversion and rdiafeilitatioa for the individual sdenfet. *nie mature scholar, as well as the advanced student whc^ curriculum had to be interrupted, needs re-education mid readjustment. The problon is not shnply one of returning to the qm ante bdkm. In niany cases Ihe war has incrmsed the researdi time md ppporiiiiiities of Ammcan .seStofeta N'TO^sarilj the conctet^aon in relativ^ few centes^ of Ihe bulk of war res^irch wil, ^odd, be reversed in 85 time of peace. But it would definitelj not be in the national interest if the dispersal of research staffs away from the largest institutions should mean a marked reduction in the research opportunities and effectivenm of university scientists. Teaching and research are complementary activities, each aiding and reinforcing the other. But if too much of the teaching is of a routine, elementary character, and if the number of teaching hours is m great as to absorb too much of the time and creative energy of the scientists, then the two activities become competitive. Before the war, in all but a few of the most prosperous universities, teaching loads were exc^ive from the standpoint of optimal research output.^ The ne^ to make up for the wartime deferment of training may necessitate the “acceleration” of educational programs to a three- term basis for some years after the war, again with harmful effects to r^earch. To the well-trained university scientist now engaged in war work, the inamediate academic outlook may have lost some of its appeal, specially if he is research minded. For during the war he has had, perhaps for the first time in his life, the facilities and assistance to cayry on r^earch in a really efficient way. At the same time, indus- trial laboratories will be bidding eagrfy for his services. University salari^ tend to be low compared with those in industry and there has been a steady flow of university scientists into industrial labora- tories. Since one of the most important fruits of pure research is the creation of outstanding applied r^earch men, it is very much in the national interest diat mis movement take place in some degree. But in the immediate postwar period there is danger that an undue number of trained mdividuals may go into industry, stripping the univer- siti^ of those who are most competent to teaich a new g«eration of res^dh workers. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to maintain a favorable competitive position for universilieB r^tive to industry. ■ Paradoxically, increasmg the teaching load of university scienfets to meet pc^twar demands may intensify the teaching shortage through its tendency to encourage transfers to industry. A number of partial solutions suggest themselves, each being possible only if financial support is available to make research opportunities more plentfful and teaching more attractive. Numerous scientists on war work may be encouiaged to return to their xmiversities; many of the newly trained war mentists may be encouraged to remain in the universities; competent scientists who bdore the war were in institutions with very littie science teaching may be transferred to the more active centers; finaiy, universities may decide to alter teaching methods and size of claves for at l^t a few years after the war. These are important short-run makeshifts. In the long run the solution will be found in the training of more a^ieutists. It is also vit^y important that sufficient laboratory assistance, materials, apparatus, clerical and manual aid be provided for those university stra members who are xmdertaking research in the natural sciences. It is anomalous, to say the least, that universities and coll^^ should hire first-class scientists, equip them with offices and iaboratpiies, and then fail to provide Aem with the supplementaiy funds nece^ary for productive research. No industrial laborakny I Soft would be so imprudent as to use the time of highly paid staff members for doiug shop work. A survey was made by this committee to make possible a quantita- tive comparison of the support of research in universities, nonprofit research institutions and industrial laboratories during the prewar years. The aim was to discover just how nearly the universities were approximating the practice, in the use of research persoimel, which research institutes and especially industrial laboratories had found to be economical and efficient.^ The results showed that, just prior to the war, university science departments were spending on the direct operating costs of research — apparatus, materials, technical assist- ance— sumsof theorderof 10 to 40 centsforeveryJdoEar of salary paid to members of the research staff- A figure of 15 or 20 cents per salary dollar was typical of most departments. Figures above 30 cents were uncommon and were considered to be distmctly liberal by stand- ards of current university practice. By contrast, in a similar survey of a number of industrial research laboratories, a figure ol 40 cents for direct research expenditures, per dollar of salary paid to the r^earch staff, was the lowest encountered.^ In most of the firms reporting, the research expenditures ranged from $1 to $3 for each dollar of salary. Industries have found that generous expenditures for a^ist- ance to research workers are economical in the long run. Clearly steps must be taken to help the universities bring their supplementary research expenditures more into line with the best practice. If the prewar support of research in universities was inadequate, the postwar situation promise to be worse, unless drastic remedi^ are applied. In view of the wartime increase of some 27 percent in the price levd of al goods,* each of the already inadequate university research dofiars will go much less far than foore the war. It is as though eveiy natural science department had already received a cut in its postwar research budget of from one^uarter to one-third. This prospect is serious for all universities but perhaps most acute for the 25 universities just below the first half dozen in size and re- sources. The large wartime university research laboratories have drawn upon the intermediate universities for staffs. Such tried and experienced men can make valuable contributions in their home insti- tutions if adequate funds are made available. Here lies the imme- diate opportunity from the Nation’s point of view, although much also remains to be done at the highest and lowest levels. B. FORM OF AID TO UNIVERSITIES Although the Government may render important indirect aid to universities by keeping its own laboratori^, libjrari^ and other researti facilities at a high level of efficiency, the principal need m for direct financial support under conditions which wiM not endanger academic freedom and the personal inde|:^dence of the inv^tigator. This committee do^ not feel that it is d^irable to supply these funds by a sari« of annual 'Congre^onal appropriatmns for specific projects; the' difficulti^> th'€se have raised within the Government s^- vio© testify to the evib that would be inlrodui»d into the university environment by this, practice. The pres^warion of academic freedom require that funds be allo<»ted in a way that would minimize the pc^sibii^* of external ccmfeol and would encourage long-term projecta * nA*, affl Mweb II, IMK to ^mmxj 15, IWS. 87 Experience in other countries and the example of the successful priYate foundations suggest that a largely autonomous board with a staff of men trained in science is the most appropriate agency for carrying on this ph^ of the Government's responsibility for scien- tific progr^s. Recommendations for the formation of a National Research Foundation and additional responsibilities with which it may be charged appear elsewhere in this report. The following para- graphs are devoted to an outline of the committee's views respecting ite operation in relation to universities. To rive funds intelligently in support of fundammtal research is a difficult task and there is no generally accepted rule of procedure. The private foundations follow a numb^ of different policies and are con- stantly revisiig their procedures on the basis of accumulating ex- perience. A Government board would have new and perplexing problems stemming from its status as an arm of the Government, and from the fact that the T&BOw:cess at its command would pr^umably be large in comparison with those of any single university or private foundation. The committee recommends, therefore, that such a bcmrd be in large measure free to formulate its own rules of procedure for allocating funds to universities, as long as th^ do not transgr^ certain broad general principles. The most important of these general principles are as follows: (1) The funds supplied to the universities should be used for the support of significant research with special emphasis on the universities' position as the chief contributor to pure science. (2) In making grants the board should assure itself that the university has competent and adequately trained personnel to guide the studies. (3) Grants to univerritieB or to men working in universities must be made in such a way as to avoid contrm of the internal policy of the university, so that the university and not the board will have full responsibility for the administration of the grant after it is once rnade. (4) A constant effort should be made to improve the general research level in institutions of higher education throughout the country. No matter on what conditions money is given to universities, the Tey exfeteace of such support will, of course, modify university policy. In fact, the increased emphasfe on research, which will be the object of the Foundation, its^ constitutes a change in policy. And despite the fact that our committee is eoncOTaed only with the natural sciences, action fdong the lines projK^ed cannot fail to have influence on the humanitim and the social sciences. It is our hope and belief that the provBion of funds for the natural sciences would, in some measure, fr^ university funds tm use in the other fields. A^de from such gen- eral influences, however, it would be necessaiy^ to devise ways and means of aUocating funos in large measure vMmd Sirnmning what pmUcmiar problems am to be wom^ on and is to cmrp tfym out. The i>rinciple of variety and d^sentralimtion of control is nowhere more important than in scientific work, where the fostering of novelty must be the first concern. One of the most mefiil ways of preseorving thero opportumties is to rilow the gimtest possible latitude to the acCTmiuated w^om of university adminibirawve dicers and faculti^. The committee has given a great deal of thought to the technical form in which Goyemment grants should be made in order best to reflect these principles. It does not wish to recommend that the pro- posed board be restricted to the use of any particular plan, as experi- ence will undoubtedly reveal in each defects and advantages which cannot be predicted beforehand. The committee, however, feels that any instrumentality set up to aid research in universities should be empowered to allocate funds in any or all of the following ways: I. Matching Grants to Private and State Supported Institutions It is proposed that research funds be made available to accredited universities, college, and en^eering schools on a matcning basis, and in a manner that will be virtually automatic. Th^e graniB would be contingent upon satisfying the ^ministrating board that certain clearly stated requirements, largely of a technical bookkeeping nature have been met by the particular institution in question. The grant would be for fluid research purposes within the institution, rather than to any particular department or person. Once a university were accepted as a participant in this plan, and as long as it continued to meet the require conditions, it would expect to receive the grant as a regular annual appropriation, with no other control than some form of government audit to insure that the money was, m fact, used in support of research. The Government would match dollar for dollar (or according to any other simple formula) the sums the university expended for r^eareh. Althoi:^h certain praclii^ difficulties must be recc^nized and dealt with, many conMderalions make matching grants attractive in principle. First, and perhaps most imjmrtant, it leaves to the re- dpient institution complete freedom in the selection of research programs and personnel. Serond, it encourages local supjport and utilizes the important forces of local interest and pride, both in screen- ing out unworthy projects and in carrying through worth-while on^. Tmrd, the size of the grant is geaied more or less realisticaHy to the ability of the institution to umlize it effectively. Fourth, since the grants are largely automatic in dhiaracter, the board is freed from the burden of investigating intensively the large number of potential recipients and arriving at a decision in regard to the merits and defects of each. The experience of the private foundations demonstrates that judgments of this sort are extremely difficult and time-consuming, even whan pursued on a small scale. The burden of work for a Gov- ernment bo^rd with much laiger funds at its disp<ml m bound to be far greater, T^ere is, of cxiurse, the practical proHem of detomining r^eaareh 'Costs as distinguish-ed 6*oin other millays, Uiiiveimly wxxiiinti^ practice is by no means uniform and there are inherent difficulties m deciding what part of the costs of laboratory space, steff salaries, administrative ovrachead and so forth is occasioiiied ly r^emrch and what part teadiing. Certain funds now rec^iyed by univeratic^, imtabfy as a result 'Of contracte witib. industry, irf»«ld almcBl certainly iml im Inalched W the Goveminm% if tiie resulting dfe- 'Covetl'es ' were to tejome ' the exdimve , the mdi»trial 'Eifficatties of Hm nature, howev^^-are not insuperable and fijiiwiM not w*dglt heavily i^alnst the maz^ advantages of the schema m 2. Disaetionary Grants MatcMiag grante, however, may well be attacked as a method of mamtaining the status quo, in which a few diversities tend to dom- inate scientific research. It is, in fact, essential to the healthy growth of science that the Foundation should help to spread the research spirit as widely as possible throughout the United States. If the recruitment of future scientific personnel is to proceed from a suffi- ciently broad base, it is important that as large a number of studente as po^ible be made aware of the research point of view. Many of our c»Il^« and engineering schools are not now able to support a significant amount of research.® The level of research practice in these institutions can best be raised through discretionary grants. The committee recommends, therefore, that the board of trustees be empower^ to expend a substantial part of its funds on a discre- tionary basis, either as grants-in-aid for promising special projects or in the provision of large and expensive capital facilities. a. Granfs-in-aid Much of the funds now granted by private foundations to univer- Bities is in the form of grants-in-aid for special purposes. These range in size from a few hundred dollars for 1 year to several hundred thou- sand dollars for a period of 5 to 10 years. A Government foundation with larger sums at its command would presumably be in a position to make appropriations of considerable size and for long periods of time. Indeed the very magnitude of its r^ponsibnities would require that it abstain from frittering away its efforts on a large number of small and transitory projects. Once proper precautions are taken to avoid obvious pitfalls, several advantages of relatively stable grants-in-aid argue strongly for tbeir adoption in certain circumstances. Of first importance is thte fact that they offer what is probably the best means of supporting promis- ing projects in institutions whose present status does not enable them to benefit sufficiently under matching grants. In this connection particular attention should be given to attaining a better balance of research activity throughout the country. b. Grants for Capifai Facilities It has Akmdj been pointed out that any plans for expansion of reseitrch in educational institutions will require additional inv^tment in building and equipment. Increases in the total number of stu- dents are expected to bring student enrollment considerably above prewar levels and wiU bring great pressure on existing facilities which are already overcrowded. Substantial sums wiU therefore be require to provide adequate facilities for advance research. ^ In addition the trends in many fidds of scientific research point toward the increasieg importance of large and highly expensive pieces of equipment which, at present, can be purchased and maintaiaed only by favored institutions. The astronomears were perhaps the first to face this problem^ but now the physicist wishes to work with a cydotion or betatron, and the biochemist with an ultracentrifuge or mass spectrograph; and workers in many fields have need for the » B. m services of computing centers or for the use of complicated calculating equipment, such as the differential analyzer. ]Much of present-day engineering research requires large installations of a semi-industri^ nature. It is, accordingly, suggested that the Government could greatly aid the coiirse of both pure and applied research by making available th^e facilities to universities, with provisions that they should be used cooperatively by other institutions in the region. A detaOed proposal for the management of such faciliti^ will probably need close study; and the needs of each center should be adapted to its peculiar local circumstances. This proposal appears to have a number of inherent advantage: (1) It provides necessary facilities that would not otherwise be readily available, and an economical and democratic way of using them, (2) it recognizes the cooperative aspects of modern research and provides facilities where workers could come together for a com- mon effort and interchange of ideas, and (3) care in the placement of such equipment would immediately stimulate and strengthen research efforts in hitherto less favored areas. 3. Post-Doctoral Research Fellowships Another committee under the chairmanshi|) of Dr. Moe ^ has made a careful analysis of the problem of recruiting and training future research workers up to the levd of the doctorate. The Moe Com- mittee is recommending a substantial program of undergr^uate and predoctoral science fellowships. We ^ould like to remfor<» these recommendations by stating our belief that the need for addi- tional perwnnel is one of the most pressing which faces undversiti^, industiy, and government. The very heart of any successful pro- gram of research is the existence of a strong body of highly trained men. Adequate funds can be of immense value in giving a large number of qualifi^ persons the opportunity for the nec^sary training and study. Not only will provisions for undergraduate and pre- doctoral feilowsM]^ help supply future workers, but gimts in the latter cat^ory will immediately contribute to the productive r^earch done in universities. Much of the actual experimental work carried on in these institutions is done by students pursuing the Ph. D. degree under the direction of mature investigators. Every additional qualified student assistant thus increases the effectivene^ of the senior staff members. The Bowman Committee also wishes to recommmd a program of p€»,t-doctoral fellowships as a direct aid to researdL The Natioiiai Research Council, with funds received from Ihe Rockefdd^ Founda- tion, has for many years wanted a number of feiowAips to iwearch workers who have recenuj .receivecl advaii'C«i duress and wish a year or two more to estaM^ Uifins^ve® firmly in investigative work bef (me taking up e^steaave 'teaching responsibilitiee. A notably h^h proporiaon of the reripients have gone on te^ distingnMiod 'Car^rs in science or one of the dllied arts, notably m medicine. Ctoe of the most important aspects of th^ l^ow^ps is that thdur holders * The Moe Committee was appointed by Dr. Bnsb to assist in answering the President's question **Caii an effective program be proposed for discoveriiK and developing scientific t^nt in American youth so that the eontinumg future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done dining the wax?” (See President's letto*.) 91 have in the majority of instances used them for work at institutions other than those in which they obtained their degrees. Thus, they not only broadened their own training but contributed greatly to the interchange of ideas and methods between laboratories. In the immediate postwar period, an increase in the number of these fellow- ships would be especially important in re-establishing in scientific work many men who had completed their formal education before joining the armed forces and would thus be ineligible for aid wader Ihe G, I- Bill of Rights. The fellowships should also be heli)ful in <»rtam fields of pure and applied science where a combination of ^ifis is required and where the cost of a thorough training is pro- hibitive under pr^ent conditions. 4. Senior Research Fellowships Although scholarship and fellowships such as those d^cribed above have operated successfully on a fairly large scale in the past, fewer opportunities exist for similar aid to the mature investigator. One of the foundations has for several years given special attention to Uiis field, and shortly before the war the National Research Council instituted the Welch Fellowships in Medicine for men of relatively advanced though hardly mature academic status. In the opinion of the committee, however, much more needs to be done to enable really experienced investigators to develop and utilize their talents most effectively. The problem, in fact, appears to be far beyond the means of private resources. Research workers who have reached the status of assistant professor or above tend to remain in their own uni- versiti^ and their time available for research tends to become increas- ingly broken up. In theory, the sabbatical year gives an opportunity for intensive research or travel, but in recent yeairs universities have been and less able to grant such freedom from academic routine. The iwultmg immobility of the s^or staff serves to isolate the intel- lectual life of a university from that of its fellows, and the individuals concerned, lacking outside stimulation, may incline more and more to perfunctory i^rformance of routine duties. The tendency of Ameri- . can universita^ to select full professors and department heads from ' within their own staffs only a^ravates these undesirable conditions. Fellowships la^e enou^ to meet the salari^ of advanced academic personnel for periods of intensive research work at their owninstitutions or at other universiti^ would be an effective means of attacking these problems. Such grmts offer an especially powerful tool for building up research in iusritutions that are Just beginning to develop the r€»^ch spirit, either by enahling €ldr faculties to receive advanced training elsewhere or by bringing dktingoidied workers to them from other institutions. An accompanying grant to cover the use of rm^ch facilities should be made to me inslitution selected by the recipient of the feBow^p. Efforte should also be made to encourage mature scientists in industay and govOTunent to avail themselv^ of tiie opportunity provide in this prc^ram to do fundamental research in universities of own choice. This should help in part to speed the transition between pure r^earch and its practical applications. Chapter IV SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE GOVERNMENT SERVICE An analysis of the activities of the various scientific bureaus gives convincing proof that the recognized responsibilities of the Gbvem- ment in scientific research are wide indeed. The types of research in which it is directly engaged^ may be roughly classified under three headings: (1) research that is essential to the effective operation of Government departments; (2) research of broad scientific and economic importance that has long-range value to the Nation and for which the Fede^ GovOTiment has assumed a large share of the responsibility (particularly important has been Government research for industries made up of many small units) ; and (3) technological research of public concern, which is either too expensive or whose success is too problem- atical or too far distant to attract the research efforts of commercial ente^rise. In this cat^ory woidd also be placed research prc^rams, requiring elaho^te coordination, which the Government is peculiarly well-fitted to direct. Much of Government research is of wide scope and long-range character. It is predominantly a t^tm affair, and often involve the correlation and migration of a Nation-wide efforL with the Govern- ment enlisting the cooperation of investigators mom industry and universities tnioughout the countaw. The development of the contract mechanism for sponsoring research has been a most important factor in this type of cooperation. The planning, organization and succ^sful administration of such far-reaching research programs often raise problems much more complex than those encoxmtered in the operation of laboratories devoted exclusively to specific sciences. The general problem of improving the conditions under which the Government conducts research, and the special problem of coordinatr ing the various scientific activities of the Government, hm been previously considered by a number of other committee who have reported to the Congr^ or tp the Pr^ident. In 1884, a commitl^ of the National Academy of Sciences reported to the Congress on the condition of several of the most impcnrtaat scieiitific bureaus. This committee recommended the consoldatiba of the four a^nci^ under consideration into a sin^e Departemt of Science, or, if mat not deemed practical, the creation of an advisory ‘^permanent oomm^ion'* changed with «>ordiBating and improving me sciartific ^rvices of the Government. Ndther recommendatfon wm acted upcm. In 1908, aaothar committee of the National Acad^y recommended a per- maneint board to adv^ on the work of the sea«itifie bureaus, the b^nd to 'Consist nf the heads^ of the v«iou^ bmmus, four del^ates from '1^ of not connected 93 with the Government service/^ No action was taken as a result of this report. A temporary Science Advisory Board was appointed by I¥esident Roosevelt in 1933 and asked to consider specific problems of the organization of various scientific bureaus and to recommend a program for more active support of research by the Federal Govern- ment. In the 2 years of its activities, the board made many valuable recommendations and brought about useful improvements in the Government service. The board submitted its first report in 1934 and its final report late in 1935. In this final report the board strongly r<wx)mmended the creation of a permanent science advisory board for the scientific services of tbe Federal Government. Several years later the National Resources Committee published a study of Federal aids to r^arch and of the place of scientific work in the Government.^ Findings of these two committees have been consulted freely in the preparation of the present chapter. Suggestions from research wooers and research directors long connected with government bureaus afford a basis for recommendations supplemental to those proposed by the earlier committees. A. SUGGESTED REFORMS The special problems of the conduct of research by the Government are made more diflBcult than is necessary by the application to research activities and to research personnel of relations desimed primarily to govern custodial, regulatory, or other functions of Government. Many of the^e regulations and restrictions seriously hamper succ^ful prosecution of r^arch work by Government agencies. If research IS to he conducted by Government, ite distinctive character should be recognized, and it should be freed from as many as possible of these hampering restrictions. Fiscal and budgetary procedures should be modified to fit the particular needs of research work rather than attempting to adapt research procedures to inflexible regulations applicable to other items of Government expense. Civil Service r^ulations should be modified to permit the most advantageous procedui^ for recniiting and classifying scientific personnel. Re- search by Government bureaus should be coordinated with research in other public and private scientific institutions. t . Fiscal and Bu<lget<xy Procedures The scientifiic work of Go VOTmeoat bureaus could be assisted greatly by simplifying procedure in order to permit more effective use of the fimds appropriated for research. The principal modifications sug- g^ted here are aimed at granting wider latitude and greater flexi- bility for planning and executing sustained research programs. The nec^sary change in procedure can probably b^t be determined by a special committee composed of governmental and nongovernmental sdaitists and representative of the budgetary or appropriating authorities. a. Appropriations for Long-Term Programs Current budgetary procedure of Government provide funds on an annual Imris, yet only a small percentage of the research conducted by * 1. RdmtU% of the Fedeml Goomimmt te JRamrcb, cM. m Government agencies can be planned adequately or appraised satis- factorily on a 1-year basis. Kesearch programs should somehow be assured in terms of their long-run objectives. If approved^ funds should be guaranteed over the period of years necessary to permit continuity of effort and attainment of th^e ultimate objectives. Appropriations should be in lump sums for broad programs rather than in specific sums for detailed projects. Kequiring detailed justifications of an annual budget tends to stultify research by ignoring its intrinsic uncertainty. Appropriations within the assur^ sum might then be made avaflable as at pr^ent in the annual budget. This plan has attained limited acceptance in certain departments of the Gnvem- ment, but the procedure should be made uniform throughout scientific bur«irus. It gives needed flexibility to research pix^ams and permits modification to meet unexpected developments which almost inevitably arise. b. Cooperative Support of Research by Public and Private Agencies The^ degree of cooperation by public and private ^enci^ in the financial support of research has never been uniform in all departeents of the Government. It should be made a relatively simple matter for any scientific bureau of the Government to accept funds from State or local governments, from nonprofit research institutions, or from private industry, for cooperative scientific investigations that are in the public interest. It is particularly important that Eederal research agenci^ should be able to cooperate freely with State and municipal governments. Many problems of predominantly local concern can be studied most advantageously by State agencies, such as agricultural experiment stations, health departments, and mineral resource bureaus. To the extent that the results of these studies are of more than local interest, they should receive financial support through the Federal bureaus that are particularly interested. The Federal Government should, perhaps, make^ a special effort to stimulate development of research organizations in backward stat^. c. Simplification of Fiscal Regulations Government regulations regarding the purchase of supples and equipment, while intended to assure economy and fair d waling to all, often hamper research programs. The calling for bids and the insist- ence on purchase of the lowest-priced material is no doubt fully justi- fied for the great bulk of Government supply. Neverthelm, the required procedures do not always 3rield scientific equipment of the best quality, and the nominal savi^ is usu^y far outweighed by intangible losses in delay and frustration of the research staff. Liheral- ization of the rules for purchase of scientific equipment is, therefore, recommended. 2. Operation of the Civil Service The most important sin^e factor in scientific and tedhnical work is the qualty of personnS employed. Scientific and prof^ior^ personnel in Government service are now subject to approximately the same system of recruitment, promotion, and supervision as those in ttie clmcal, fiscal, and custodial positions. Separate and distinct procedure for recruiting and classifying scientific personnel are war- ranted by tJie exacting tecimical requirements in these services. No one change from current practice would do more to improve the quality of research conducted by the government than the establish- naont of a separate branch of the Civil Service for scientific and tech- mcal positions. The Civil Service was instituted to replace the demoralizing " Spoils %sten” by an orderly merit system of recruiting eflicient personnel for Government service. It has been largely succ^sful in diminating the spoilsmen”; and any modifications designed to improve present methods of recruiting and protecting personnel must not imperil the def^isa now afforded against politico influence and favoritism in making appointments. The keystone of the merit system is compe- tition open to all qualified applicants for a position; but the Civil Service has been severdy criticized because of the slow and cumber- some machinery nectary to insure this competition. The general suggestions offered here are designed to meet the more serious of these criticisms without undermining the essentials of the merit system. The precise form of changes needed in present Civil Service procedures deserves study by a special committee of governmental, university, and industrial scientists and representative of the Civil Service Commission. a. Entrance Requirements for Scientific Service The standards for entrance into scientific and professional positions in the Government should be approximatdy those maintaiDed for comparable j^ts in universitie and industrie. Civil Service posi- tions are subjected to continuous political preeure to rdax entrance requirements ; and recently the educational requirementB for a number of sci^iiific classifications have been removed. Tliis opens the way to posdHe appointments by personal favoritism and political prefer- ence. Actictt ^ould be taken immediately to re-establish the require- ment of a university or college de^ee for entrance into all scientific and professional services, inceptions in especially meritorious cases ^ould be granted only upon recommendation of qualified scientists. In many typm of Government employment, standards are not lowered bv granting militaiy preference to candidate who have served in tiae armed forces, although, strictly speaking, such preference is a departure from the merit ^stem. In scientmc and technical services, however, individuals unable to qualify without special preference are not reafiy benefit by appointment to positions for which they are unqualified; and when smm appointments are made, the work inevitably suffers. Any lowering of entrance requirements, whether for dviliaas or veterans, is distinctly harmful to the scientific service of Government. b. Recruitmcnf of Scientific Personnel The method of recruiting for goveammental service pr^upposes a supply of able applicants for every position to be filled. However, in the years immediately preceding the pr^ent war there was a short^e of able youi^ emoitists. This shortage is likely to be even more acute after the war, because of the interruption of training programs. 96 Govermaeiit scientific bureaus are under a severe handicap in com- peting with industrial laboratories which employ college seniors by the^ use of the personal interview followed by prompt appointment. This handicap should be offset as much as possible without jeopardiz- ing the fundamental objectives of Civil Service. It should be i)er- missible for representatives of Government agenci^ to interview students and to persuade the more able ones to apply for employment. The months of delay between application, examination, and notifica- tion of appointment should, if po^ible, be reduced to a few days. College seniom could be given appointments effective on the day of their graduation. The necessary safegu^ds could be maintained by a lor^er period of probationary employment and by the requirement of suitable examinations before promotion to higher grades. Govern- ment bureaus could further improve their chances of successful re- cruitment from the colleges by making wider use of temporary student appointments during summer vacations. c. Salary Scale The opportunity for full-time scientific work, freedom to publish r^ults, and the satisfaction of serving the national intermt attamct many able scientists to the Government service. But salary scal^ must be broadly commensurate with those of private institutions if these scientists are expected to remain in Government service. En- trance s^aries in Government scientific positions are usually gJightiy above tins competitive level. However, promotion is slow in CJovem- ment service, and the i%her positions carry salaries much lower ^an those off^ed in mdustry. The pr^ent S3rstem of eiE&ciency rating and promotion procedures is deseed to assure fair and uniform treat- ment for aE governmental positions. But this ^tem is so elaborate that it requires handling by many persons of nontechnical training. Furthermore, in most branches of Government service, the higher salaries are almost solely for supervisory positions. As a result, the senior professional positioii, with a salary range of $4,600 to $5,400 a year, is the hi^^t ordinarily attained fay Government sdentists in nonadministrative positions. Civil Service r^ulations dbould be modified to permit exceptionally qualifi^ scientisis to rmeh salaries of $9,000 or more a year even though they may not have important administrative responsibilities. It is sometimes said that one of the most serious limitations of scientific work by the Government is the mability to pay salmes large enoi:^ to get outstanding directors for r^eardx oiganimtions, Almough no l^m restrictions, except the necessity for congr^^mal approvm, prevent the employment of a director of a bureau at whatever salary is deemed nec^sary, practical «>imderatioBS — • such as comparison with the salaries of I>e|Mi1anmt Secretaries and members of Congress^— inevitably impose limitations. In actual practice, few r^earch directors have receivad more than $9,000 a year. , — ' ' , Under the stress of war needs, when expert talent was uigeDtiy required, the departments of Government, pM^cularly the so-called *‘war .saw^eded to smm extent in breaking down the tradition of low Goverament sdbtries. Many tectmical positions and salaries- were, in. -^ec^ -ifMKadoi; and ^is contributed significantly to- .the flow of wvenmi^il mrflm during the war mier- 97 geacy. A more general and permanent up-grading of positions and salari^ in the scientific services of Government, accompanied by a careful selection of new talent, would be a major contribution to im- provement of the quality of research conducted by the Government. d. Security of Tenure The security of tenure in Civil Service is partial compensation for the lower salari^ in many typ^ of governmental employment, spe- cially during periods of depression. But if scientific and professional personnel are to be classified separately from other Government employee, and if they are to receive salaries approximating those of their coHeagu^ m universities and in industry, care must be taken that this securitjy of tenure does not become a shelter for incom- petence and mediocrity. Many of the more able and energetic scientists iu Government service are offered higher salaries elsewhere. Inevitably, a number of these offers are accepted, with the result that the less qualified^ employees tend to constitute a larger proportion of those who remain. Unless a r^earch bureau can replace such losses with new employees of equal ability, it is forced to operate with only the residue of its scientific staff after continuous raids. An additional handicap is the difficulty, xmder Civil Service regulations, of demoting or dismissing incom- petent, mediocre, or poorly adjusted individuals. Higher standards for entrance into scientific positions, longer and I more closely supervised periods of probation, examinations for pro- motions in the lowest grades, with the alternative of separation from the service, and higher salaries for the abler scientists are some of the methods by which the quality of scientific work of the Government can be improved. 3. Coordination of Governmental Research The extensive development of the sciences in recent years, and the increasing complexity of governmental research, make it more difficult each year to coordinate the scientific work conducted by the Govern- ment and to iat^rate governmental r^earch with that of universities, endowed institutions, and industrial organizations. Parallel investi- gations of certain important research problems are to be encouraged rather than avoided, and duplication should not necessarily be the bugbear in science that it is in other types of governmental activity. Neverthelm, it become increasingly important that the research per^nnel of various governmental bureaus keep in close touch with one another and with current technical devdopments and public needs. a. Coordination of Research Within the Govemmenf A specific need is for an iuterbureau committee or council of repre- sentatives of the principal scientific bureaus. Such a committee mi^t be set up mder the Bureau of the Budget, or other appropriate auspices, to advise on interrelationships of research programs of the different agenci^,^ and to compare the effectiven^ of Afferent pro- i»d[iires for administering governmental research. Eecommendations firoBi such a committee on policies of budget procedure or of dassifica- tion of scientific personnel should cany more weight than the recom- mendation of a single bureau. The practice of utilizing scientific employees of one bureau as con- sultants for other bureaus is difficult under existing regulations. But if this practice were generally adopted, it would further coordination of research programs by diieminating more widely a kaowledge of the related problems under investigation by various agencies and of the different methods by which these problems are being attacked. b. Coordination of Governmental Researcli witfi Outside Organizations There is a widespread impression that a research project, once started by a Government bureau, may continue long after it has served its original purpose. Research projects need continuous reappraisal in the light of scientific advance and technological developments. Orderly revision of research programs should be the normal and ex- pected result of scientific progress. The danger that a research bureau may fail to revise its programs or its methods when they become obsolete is minimized most surely by encoura^ng members of the scientific staff to maintain close contact with their professional colleaOTes elsewhere. Government employees engaged in research should be encouraged to participate in the activities and publications of national scientific societi^. This means, among other things, more liberal funds for travel to scientific meetings. Furthermore, it should be legally possible for any Government bureau to keep in close touch with modem ideas within its field of science by assigning em- ployees on full pay for graduate work at universities or for research projects to be conducted at endowed or industrial iostitutions or at official research organizations in this or other countri^. Scientists from universities, research institutions, State agencies and industrial organizations should be invited to accept appointments for short-term projects in Government bureaus. Facilities should likewise be ex- tended to visiting scientists from foreign countries. c. Clarification of Patent Policy for Government Employees I The present policy of granting patents to the employees of some | Government bureaus for inventions in the field of the bureaus’ official duties does not instill public confidence in Government employees nor encourage indust^ to share new information with Government agencies. Attention should be given to the recommendations of the National Patent Planning Commi^ion that all inventions made within the specifically designated duties of Government employees be assigned to the Government and that doubtful cases be decided by a central board on Government patents.^ 4. Advisory Committees to the Separate Bureaus and a Permanent Science Advisory Board Many of the changes here recommended to assure proper coordi- nation of governmenSl research and raise the level of its performance depend in considerable measure upon the existence of advisory com- mittees to the several scientific bureaus. The excellentservice rendered 1 See SecowcJ Report of the Nat^md PMmt by the several advisory committees already in existence has demon- strated the value of these bodies. Their use, however, is not universal, and at present only the more proOTessive bureaus actively seek outside advice. It is therefore ui^ed that advisory committees, composed of scientists from outside the Government service, be established for eadi of the bureaus or agencies in which extensive research is being conducted. There has been ample experience, also, to demonstrate the need for a permanent Science Advisory Board, similar to the body which served so succe^fully on a temporary basis from 1933 to 1935. Such a cmtral board could correlate the activities of the specialized advisory committees, and would probably be the proper body to recommend the personnel of the various committees. It would be in a position to advise Coiigress and the Bureau of the Budget on the quality and importance of research being conducted by the bureaus. By beii^ able to rely upon the disinterested advice of such a body, Congress might be willing to appropriate sums for long-term programs of Basic research whose importance it is difficult or impossible for nontechnical persons to evaluate properly. Besides consulting with the bureau chiefs on their individuM or collective problems, the board would find it helpful to meet at stated intervals with the interbureau com- mittee proposed earlier in this chapter. We add our recommendation to those of earlier committees and strongly urge the creation of a permaaent Science Advisory Board, empowered to assume over-all resj^nsibility for advising the various bimches of the Government in scientific matters. We suggest that this board cooperate closely with the National Research Foundation. Chapter V AIDS TO INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY Industrial researcli in America has enjoyed a rapid and extensive growth. There are also widespread indications that industry is planning to undertake applied research on a greatly expanded scale in the postw^ period — -mi enoouraging and wholesome prospect. At the same time it is evident that research in American industry is concen^ted to a considerable extent in a relatively small number of industrial unite and in a few particularly progr^ive Industrie. Thirteen companies employed nearly one-third of aU industrial re- search personnel in the year 1938. In the rubber industry, one- quarter of the companies employed 9€ i^rcent of the research workers, while in petroleum and industrial chemicals the respective percentagi^ were 85 and 88. This is not to surest that there should be a conrider- able degree of uniformity among me unite of an industry or betw^n industries as to the percentage of research effort in each. But the imjplications of the increasing (X)Bcentration of industrial research in this country d^rve special study. One important fact is dear — the proce^ of transition from pure research to its practical applications does not work equally effectively in ah industries. For example, the petroleum indimtry has for years supported far more research than has the coal industry. New tech- nics developments in the petroleum field have made it p^ible to carry on an increasing amount of r^arch while the relative back- wardness of the coS industry, where small units predominate, has re- sulted in fewer and fewer new developments and a less and heSthy over-aU situation. Time did not permit an intensive and well-rounded investigatioii of this subject. The Committee feels stron^y, however, that the Na- tions Kesearch Foundation shoSd be charged with the r^ponsibility of studymg the process of technologies deySopmenl in industry and of ex|>eriinenting with methods of Sd to MustriS r^^rdh. The folowing ST^estions are tentative and submittai with the thought that they might be of assistance to tiie Board in meeting this important chalenge. A. ASSISTANCE TO TECHNICAL aiNICS FOR SMALL ENTERPRISE ' It 'IS' the bdfi^' of tiie CopmSMeO' that the most dieetive r^earch wellS’ fipom beiO'W. Our 'obieclive, therefore, dhould be to devdop as many individuS oen^tes 'of research initiative m industry as is pos- sible- The seeds of industrial research that are planted now in snaall, vigorous industrial enterprises may yield tremendous retmns in the future. There is considerable difficulty, however, id getting research started in enterprises which have not been research-minded in the past. To meet this need a number of special research clinics have been established in different regions, e. g., the New England Industrial Research Foundation. These clinics make their services available to the small business concerns of the region in which they serve. It is difficult to place this type of enterprise entirely on a self-supporting basis especially where its important promotional activities are con- cerned. The Committee believes that this movement should be encouraged. It therefore recommends that the National Research Foundation be empowered to make sustaining grants to cover part of the administrative costs involved in such organizations, provided they are run on a nonprofit basis. The activities of such services should include stimulation of business interest in research and technical developments, aid to small businesses in interpreting the trends in technical developments, consultation with individual concerns to aid them in a diagnosis of their technical problems, and maintenance of a directory service to put small busi- nessmen in touch with competent individuals and proper sources of information necessary for further work. Universities, engineering schools and nonprofit industrial research institutes should be eligible to receive grants from the National Re- search Foundation to perform such services. Insofar as possible, organizations with ^ass-roots foundations standing high in com- munity prestige ana offering a substantial background in active research work, should be selected. The staff of such a clinic might include a limited number of full- or part-time individuals for general promotional and advisory work; but there should also be available a panel of experts in as many fields as possible for counsel on specific problems. War experience has demonstrated that such organizations must be able to bring their information directly to the plant. It is believed that in the proper hands such services will prove very helpful and can be of significant value in the long run in developing vigorous new research organizations and reducing the existing concentration of research in a relatively small number of companies. B. GRANTS TO NONPROFIT INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTES FOR FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH In rec^t years an increasing number of industries in which re- search has lagged in the past have attempted to meet the problem by establishing special research institutes to serve the industry. Such institutes are usually supported by annual grants from individual business concerns. One of the difficulties that these institutes have faced is the pressure for short-range accomplishments. In consequence, r^earch undertaken has not bem sufficiently basic to achieve the most s^nificant results. It is suggested, therefore, that where non- profit industrial institutes are deemed capable of undertaldng im- portant long-range research they should be eligible for gyants for fundamental research from the National Research Foundation. C. ENCOURAGEMENT FOR NEW SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISES In addition to these recommendations, some members of the Committee feel that special steps should be taken to encourage the launching of small scientific enterprises. Other members, while sympathetic to these objective, do not believe that any practical method could be devised for handling such problems through a government agency. Those members of the Committee who favor taking some positive action to hdp launch new scientific enteiyrises believe that greater oppoitimitim should be provided to individuals who are primarily inten^^ in new applications of recent advances in pure science rather thaa in basic inquiry itself. This thou^t has been daboratoi by one of the members of the Committee in the following terms: T!iB couDtry needs new types of industrial activity. We should not be satisfied with the cycle of displacement of one good technical product made of metal by the same product made of plastic, and so on, in a rather unimaginative ntilimtion of fundamental developments. What is required is the rapid invention and evo- lution of the peacetime analogues of Jet-propelled vehicles, bazookas, .and the multiplicity of secret, bold developments of the war. New types of industrial activity could be aided if students of engineering and science were strongly encouraged at the undergraduate stage to study unsolved technical problems and to invent solutions for them. On graduation those young men who wish to strike out for themselves should have the opportunity to complete their inventions, both theoretically and practically, in an actual enterprise. In large industrial organizations which provide the principal outlet for such men there is a long path of duty which the young scientist must pursue before he <mn become very effective in original contribution. Furthermore, most large indus- trial concerns are limited by policy to special directions of expansion within the well-established field of activity of the company. On the other hand, most small companies do not have the resources or the faciliti^ to support ** scientific pros- p^ing.” Thus the young man leaving the university with a propwal for a new kind of industrial activity is frequently not able to find a matrix for the develop- ment of his ideas in any established industrial organization. Neither is it always satisfactory that such a potential scientific entrepreneur remain in the university for graduate work. The Ph. D. degree in the American university may not best fit a man for such a career; it makes him a good scholar but may dampen his early leanings in the direction of the commercial development of his ideas. * The Comtoittee was not able to agree on a solution to this problem. The matter was regarded as of siimcient importance, however, to justify careful investigation by the National Research Foundation in the hope that it might be able to devise special methods and techniques of encouraging young scientists in the development of their inventiojas and in the launching of new scientific enterprise. D. STRENGTHENING THE PATENT SYSTEM Patents are the life of research. No study of the aids to r^eardb or the incentives to research would he complete without an inquiry into the maioner in which the patent laws and the patent system of tlm country might be strengthen^. The Committ^ has given its atten- tion to this important problem and has advised Dr, Bush informafiy of its views on this subject. No detailed recommendations on the patent aspects of research are herein contained since Dr. Bush is independenllj making a study of this problem looking to a separate report to the Prudent. This Committee wish^ to emphaske, however, the Teiy vital importance of a strong patent system to the development of new and active anall enterprises and the stiinulation of h^thy scioatific research. ^9445 — 45 s 103 Chapter VI TAXATION AND RESEARCH Federal corporate income taxes have an important bearing on the amount of scientific research and new-prodnct development under- taken by private enterprises. An examination of the present treat- ment of research and development expenditures for tax purpose is tberefore an important aspect of a study designed to determine, as requited by President Roosevelt, what the government can do to aid iwearch activities conducted by private organizations. A. PRESENT TAX TREATMENT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES The deduction of research and dmeh'pimnt expenditures as mrrerd charges against net income is generally permittm by the Bureau of Internal Revenue. In broad terms the policy of the Bureau appears to ^ as follows: Firms that spend approximately the same amoimt on r^earch and development work year after year and consistently daim these e:^enditures as deductions from current income seldom have substantial amounts of their daims disallowed. On the other han<L where the amounts spent on r^earch and development fluctuate widely from year to year and where the taxpayer does not follow a coEsistent accounting practice in handimg researdi and devdopment expaaditur^, the Bureau tends to ^estion more dosely the taxpayer’s timtment of such expenditures. This policy may sometime result in a less favorable treatment for new and small companies than for lai^e, establidied (X)inpanies. 1 , UiKertaifity in Minds of Taxpayers Many taxpayers believe that in recent years the Bureau of Internal Revenue has b^n adopting an increasingly critical attitude toward the deductibility of research and devdopment cjosts. This impression, so far as the Ccmmittee can determine, is not the result of any deliberate change in the policy oi the Bureau, Rather, it has probably arisen from the justifiable tendency of the Bureau to review more dosely aU items affecting taxable income in jmcB of hi^ tax rates. The uncertainty on the part of taxpayers is hd^teued by the fact that the tax law and Treasury r^ulations do not rlmriy specify the proper treatment of research and devdopment costs. There are rdativdy few court cases on the problem; moreover, existing cases to support the view that many research and devdopment costs »i cmpilal expenditure. Consequently, if the Bureau Aould aban- don its pre^nt liberal policy and attempt to enforce the capitdization of m&mA and devdopment costs wherever possible, its action might wdl be BiEl$in'©d, in 'Court. If research and devdopment costs were required to be capitalized, they could pr^ximablj be amortized over their useful life. The task of determining the proper basis of amortization would, however, be extremely difficult and frequently impossible of solution. If the tax law were very narrowly interpreted, it is conceivable, although not likely, that the difficulty of determining a proper basis for amor- tizing capitalized r^earch costs might m&e it impossible for sudi coste ever to be deducted for tax purposes. The Treasury regulations now permit intangible assets to be amortized only when the usrful Me of the asset can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Smoe a delay of several years ordinarily occurs before a tax return is .finally audited and clewed by the Bureau of Internal Revenue, the uncertain status of the deductibility of r^earch and development expenditure can involve very laige sums of money. SmaH firms making heavy research expenditure, in particular, are retricted by this uncertainty in their commitments for fixed invetments. 2. Proper Accounting Treatment of Research and Development Costs No simple, universally applicable principles can be laid down as to the proper accounting treatment of research and development ccBts, Some research costs are clearly current expense: they either turn out to be worthless or merely enable the taxpayer to keep abreast of his com|)etitor. Other r^arch expenditures may improve the long-nih position of an enterprise, but the amount of the e^enditur^ properiy allocable to a given product, and the proper basis of amortimtion of these expenditure, may be almost impoeible to determine. In a few case such as, perhaps, the development of a new model of an airplme, the capital nature of the expenditure may be fairly obvious, and it may be possible to determine a reasonably satisfactory basis for amortizing the expenditure. Even in such instance, however, it is frequently impossible to determine in the year that a given expendi- ture is made whether a valuable capital asset will be developed. 3. The Public Interest This report assume that the stimulation of research and develop- ment work, especially by small enterprises, is in the national interest. It therefore follows that the present tax imcertainties of r^arch expenditures should be removed. The case for taking this action is particularly strong since, for the most part, aU that is needed is a specific legal sanction of the present Treasury practice. B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEGISLATIVE ACTION Becommeridation (1). — ^Deductibility of expenditor^ on r^earch and development (other than expenditures for the acquisition of tangible capital assets). The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to give the taxpayer in every taxaMe year an option: (а) To deduct currentiy all expenditures on sdentific r^earch and the devdopment of new productss and proc^s^, ollw than expmdi- tmes for the acquisition of tangiMe capital aseete; or (б) To capitalize such expmditines as defeirred chpges and amor- tize them according to a specified ifian that in Ihe ju^nent of the ta^ayer is de^ed rBaamable; or . • (c) To deduct currentiy su<h part of tiiese expenditure as in the 105 judpneiife of the taxpayer is deemed to be a current cost and to capitalize the remainder as deferred charges and amortize them according to a specified plan that in the judgment of the taxpayer is deemed re^onable. This recommendation appears to be clearly desirable. Its primary effect would be to give clear legal sanction to present practice and hence to remove the uncertainty of the present law. A secondary efl«3t would be to give the taxpayer more flexibility in the deduction of research and devdopment costs. Very little change in current practice, however, would ordinarily result from the increased degree of flexibility. Most taxpayers would continue their present policy of toeating research and development costs as an annual expense. Since no simple rule, properly applicable to all cases can be devised, it seems wise to give the taxpayer considerable freedom of action. Recommendaticm (2). — Amortization of expenditures for the acquisi- tion of tangible capital assets used for scientific research and the development of new products and processes. The Internal Hevenue Code ^ouid be amended to give the taxpayer an option: (a) To amortize the cost of tangible capital assets used for scien- tific r^earch and the development of new products and process^ in equal amounts over a period of five years; or (b) To depreciate such assets at the same rates as ordinarily allowed on such assets. Recommendation (2) provides for an optional accelerated amortiza- tion of tangible capital assets acquired and used for the development of new products and proc^sm. As such, it is consistent in purpose with recommendations made by the Roosevelt Administration for tiie ac- cderated amortization of all depreciable assets. The present recom- mendation would not, however, raise many of the difficulties of iJie general propel, since it would apply to only a very small percentage of fixed assets and hence would not significantly affect the revenue yield of the tax structure. In general, expenditure for the acquisition of tangible capital assets constitute a minor fraction of all outlays on research and devel- opment. Moreover, in some instance at least, research equipment is already depreciated at a rapid rate. Nevertheless, this recom- MOTidation has been supported by most of the businessmen whose opinion on the proposal has been obtained. C BROAD TAX CONSIDERATIONS The precediug sections of this report have been confined to issues related directly to the treatment of research and development ex* penditures. TVo broader tax revMons, dearly desirable on other grounds than for the sole purpose of promoting research and develop- ment work, would be veiy hdpM in stimuialing increased research and development expenditures. Consequently, the Committee con- curs in the recommendations that have already been made by other groups: (1) That immediate legislative action be taken to make the tax reftinds from the carry-back provisions and from the postwar refund 4t Ifl percent of excess profits taxe® more promptiy available to tax- payers during the transition period; and |2) toe net operating loss carry-over provided by the present tax law be increased from 2 years, to, at least, 5 or 6 yemrs. Chapter VII INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIITC COOPERATION Perhaps more than any other national activity^^ scientific rmearch and development depend upon dose relationships with other coimtries. Scientific knowledge is not limited by geographical or racial boundaries, and it is almost impossible to thiiik of any branch of science which has progressed very far without amalgamating discoveri^ made in several different nations. In the past, most of this interchar^e has gone on formally and directly between the members of the scientific communities concerned, without r^ard to political considerations. Certain obvious barriers such as that of language have hamper^ free communication, but, on the whole, relations between scientists have probably been doser than between the representatives of any other s^ment of society. The ^owth of science in the last few decades and its increasingly dose mationdiip to other national invests have demonstrated me need for more official methods of carrying on international sdentific activity. A. SUPPORT AND SPONSORSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISES That this country has never provided any method of participating officially in international scientific enterprises has frequently been an embarrassment to various scientific groups. If the present tendency, in other countries, of dosdy integrating science with Government continues, the need will exist for some official body to carry on int^- national scientific activities. (A good example of such an activity was the so-caUed ‘Tntemationd Polar Year’^ in which several coun- tries, interested in the compilation of scientific data of the Arctic r^ons, pooled information and technique. This cooperation gave added value to the r^ults of the study by providing uniform methods of observation and presentation of the data collect^.) The Govern- ment could not only provide some modest financing for such inter- national cooperative projects, but it could also facilitate them by arranging for means of travd, visas, and so forth. It is &erefore recommended that the National Kesearch Founda- tion be charged writib the responsibility of participating m mcii inter- national cooperative scientific enterprise as it deems deirable. 1; International Scientific Confesses The Foundation should also participate in arrangements for inter- national srientifio conferences whereby scientific workers in different 107 countri^ mav be brought together to exchange ideas. These were held more or less regularly before the war and were found to be stimu- latang and useM forms of assistance to the advancement of science. As far as the United States was concerned, however, its representatives were frequently hampered, especially when they were acting as hosts for mpi&mcm hdid in this country, by the lack of Government fimnciai aid and by difficulties in arranging for officid courtesi^ rdiating to the travd of outstanding men from abroad and for other marks of official recognition which are commonly available in Europe, An organization such as the National Research Foundation could be very hdpful in making these arrangements. 2. International Fellowships If the Foundation is set up as suggested, it would be empowered to grant scholarships and fellowships to qualified scientists. It is recom- mended ffiat attention be given to awarding some of these fellowships to Americans who wish foreign travel and study, and to scientists from abroad to undertake advanced research in this country. Private foundations have found this to be an excellent way not only of aiding scientific progress but of promoting internationd understanding as weE. Holders of such fellowships are likely to be disinterested repre- sentatives of their coimtries and well equipped to observe the national life of the country they visit. Such a program should be undertaken with particular care to avoid specialized p^tical or personal interests, and it would be well to draw freely upon the experience of the National Rese^ch Coimdl or the private foundations which have been successful in this field in the past. 3. Scientific Attaches ^ The Committee would like to surest, as an experiment, that scien- tific attaches be appointed to serve in certain selected United States embassies. They should be men of high professional scientific attain- ments whose tenure of the post would be temporary — perhaps 1 or 2 years — md whose principri duties would be concerned with facilitating the various aspect of scientific cooperation discussed above. It is also expected that m formal ways they would imfirove their knowl- edge of science as it is pursued abroad and would in turn contribute something from their experience in this country. Such a post would appear to be most important in countries such as Russia where a great deal, if not all, of the scientific activity is controlled or directed by the government and where other channels of scientific communica- faon have been greatly restricted for several years; Chapter VIII A NATIONAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION As a means to implement the recommendations of this report, it is proposed that the Congress should create a National R^eardb. Foun- dation. The function of this new Federal agency should be to assist and encourage research in the public interest by disbtusement of funds allocated by the Congress for that purpose. Its board of trustee should be eminent men who are cognizant of the needs of science, and experienced in administration. The members of this board ^ould be appointed by the President of the United States from a panel nomi- nated by the National Academy of Sciences. It is proposed that the Foundation be mven an original noneaming capitalization of $5(K),000,000, to be called and expended, with the approval of Congre^, over not less than 10 years. As has been dish cussed earlier in this report, scientists and locators emphasize the cardinal importance of creating a board which (1) can budget its expenditures over a considerable period of time; (2) not be subject to review in detail by the l^Mature, and (3) wil be able to withsteid political pressures. The British University Grants Committee, whidh has been operating successfully for many years with funds supplied by Parliament and whose postwar role is undeigoing great expansion, serves as one of many examples corroborating the desirability of the above features. It ^ould be clearly understood, however, that the present committee does not recommend any instrumentality which would not be accountable to the President, the Congress, and the public for its operations. A. ORGANIZATION The board of trustees should comprise about 15 members, each serving on a part-time basis, with remuneration at the rate of $50 per diem when on official duty, plus necessary travel and subsistence expenses. The term of office should normally be for 5 years and no retiring member should be eligible for reappointment until after a lapse of 2 additional years. In order to insure continuity, there should be a staggering of the terms of office of the various members. It is suggested, therefore, that at the outset the &st appointments be for varying periods of time. Because the progress of science depmds in great measure on the vigorous and progressive abilities of younger men, the Committee su^ests that in making appointments to the board and m its policies on retirements an effort be made to keep the age distribution such as to assure djmamic leadership. The board should have the power to appoint an executive director of recognized ability who would be a full-time officer, ri^iving a salary commensurate with the, dignity and importance of hk position and responsibiliti^. The details of the internal affmhmtrative or- 1(» ganization of the Foundation cannot profitably be discussed here. The executive staff of the Foundation and its board of directors would no doubt wish to modify and change administrative procedmes in the light of experience acquired. Presumably, the executive director would have at his command a staff of experts, each responsible for a major division of science: the pWsical sciences, the biological sciences, engineering, agriculture, etc. These experts would be full-time pro- fessional employees of high salary and status, charged with the task of keeping in touch with research all over the country. By lighten- ing the burden of administration for the board, they would permit it to concentrate on important policy decisions. Not the least of the problems which would have to be faced by the new o:^anization woudd be that of maintaining close contact with r^earch in all parts of the country. B. POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES The broad, general object of the Foundation is to promote the general welfare through support to science. However, more concrete g>wers, responsibilities, and limitations must, in the judgment of this ommittee, be placed upon the scientffic Foundation when it is estab- lished. Under the guise of ^^promoting the general welfare, the agency should not be able to set itself up in business to produce in wmpetition with existing industry. Its prima:^ purpose is to provide encour^ement, and, where necessary, financial aid, without at the same time introducmg centralized control of research. The Founda- tion should be empowered to receive gifts or bequests for the support of scientific research from outside source as well as from the Govern- ment. In carrying out its objective, the Foundation should take all necessary or proper steps: (a) To study and keep itself currently informed on the present state of science in the United States and to seek ways of applying its r^urces to the discovery of useful knowledge. (b) To initiate, encourage, sponsor and mance scientific research and development with emphasis on resegurch aimed at (1) increasing the general fund of basic samtific knowledge and thus creating new industri^ and increa^d (2) promoting the conservation and better utilization of nature resources, and improving the h^th of the Nation. The Foundation should utilize to the greatest extent feasible the existiog facflities in the Federal Government, State governments, educational institutions, public and private foundations, laboratori^, and research institutes. No contract or grant-in-aid made in furtherance of this provision should introduce control by the Foundation over the mtemm policies or operations of the contractor or ^antee. (c) To estoblMi or provide new or additional scientific and technical rmearch facilities in geogmpMcal areas or specialized fiidds of study or endeavor where none exist or where existing facilities are deemed by tile Foundation to be inadequate: Promdm, That the Foundation should not iteelf undertake directly to operate such facilities. (d) To provide for and assure the most comprehensive collection and disseminatipB of scientific and technical knot^edge and mformation by aids to libraries, bibliographic services, tran^tmg activities, etc. (e) To seek out latent scientific talent, and to foster and support ffd: scientific and tecimical education and training tkrougli grants to in- dividuals, educational institutions, public and private foundations, laboratories and research, institutes, and through scholarships, fellow- ships and prizes. (f) To assist scientists, inventors, and research workers by affording them opportunities to engage in research and developmental activities. (g) To act in cooperation with the National Academy of Sciences in advising the President, the Congress, and the various departments, independent mtabMshments, and agenda of the Government on scientific matters. (h) To make ite facilities, pjersonnel and resources fuHy available to the IJnited States of America in the event of war or the declaration of a national emergency by the President or the Congress. (t) To cooperate with the Army, Navy, and civilian military research organizations for the rapid interchange of information on basic scientific problems of xise in national defense. It should co- ordinate its activities wherever possible with these organizations to prevent unnecessary duplication. (j) To assist industry and business, particularly small enterprise, in establishing research facilities and in obtaining scientific and technical information and guidance, in order to expedite the transition from scientific discovery to technological application. (k) To help maintain a contmuous and steady expansion of scien- tific research by increasing its grmts for research in periods of depression, as far as is consistent with sound and suitable policy. (Z) To represent the Umted Stat^ of America in effecting better mtemationd cooperation in scientific activities, to assist in the freer international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge and in- formation and scientific and technical personnel, to help sponsor and finance international scientific congr^es or associations and co- operative scientific research programs. The board should also be empowered to make grants for such his- torical and economic studies as it believes nec^saij W fulfil its responsibiliti^ in investigating scientific r^earch and its practical applications in industry. Finally, it should be str^ed that mnfidence must^ be reposed in the int^rity, character, and qualifications of the individuals compris- ing the board of directors. No curbs, restrictions, or limitations on their powers would provide adequate safeguards, or take the place^ of character and ability; and the introduction of a series of hampering limitations would lead to inflexibility and mefificient operation. C PATENT POLICIES OF THE FOUNDATION The Foundation should set up its own general rules for the handling of patent policies. It is felt that in establishing th^ polici^ the Foundation should interfere as little as possible with the practice of the different universities and r^earch institutions. ^ It is expected that the obtaining of patents by universiti^ on work financed by the National Research Foundation will tmmm a minor byproduct of the fundamental r^earch^ undertaken. The patent poncy of the universiti^ and research institution® should not be permitted to interfere with early publication of resuJlB, Moreover, the patent poE(^ of the recipimts of dbould be such m to widespread pubEc i®e of worthrwhfte devetopments. Ill Appendix A LIBRARY AIDS Adequate teclmical libraries are an indispensable tool for research workers. Every new discovery depends upon a host of former ones, and every year brings additions to the store of knowledge which must be mastered by the scientist. The magnitude of the task of keeping all this knowledge available to the scholar requires that he be provided with every possible aid and convenience. These services may be con- sidered under three headings: (A) interlibrary cooperation, (B) ab- stracting and translating services, and (C) bibliographic and reference service. At the pr^ent time none of these services can be said to be entirely adequate and the rapid expansion of published materials naakes it very unlikely that private resources can continue library services even on thm?: present level. The problem is so large and require so much S5>ecm knowledge and training that the^ Committee does not feel in a position to make specific recommendations as to where Government aid can best be brought to bear. It does, however, feel strongly that a Government board such as the Nation^ Kesearch Foundation pro- posed elsewhere in this report should give careful attention to the problems presented below, and should devote part of its funds to their solution. Several existing Government agencies, such as the Library of Congress and the Army Medical Library, could, if they were sup- plied with sufiScient resources, do much to improve existmg services throughout the country. The following paragraphs contain a short summ^ of the Committee's views regarding me most important ^ i^ues involved in the improvement of library services. A. iNTERLIBRARY COOPERATION The three largest Kbrari^ in this country, the Library of Congress, the Harvard University library, and the New York Public Library, have long ago given up any hope of collecting all materials necessary for r^^ch. Considerable evidence exfets that over the past 150 years, librmes in this country have b^n doubling in size every 16 years. .This geometrical progression raises great problems requiring that attention be given to the various teclmical proposals which have iwn made for reducing the bulk of th^ materi^ and for simpHLping tbe problem of storage and cataloging. Pending the widespread adoption of really revolutionary technicM aids, it wnl Be n^jessary to make ocmprehenrive arrangetnents for interlibrary cooperation. There are two important problems here. One, that of securing in this country at least one copy of all needed items. Various estimate ^ve si]®»|ed that existing library holdings represent from one- third to OBe-half of all the books published. Id other words, Dowhere iD this country are there copies of many millions of books, pamphlets, magazines, etc. The second part of the problem is securing enough copies of various titles so that they are strategically av^able to students and scholars. For some books, perhaps, one copy would be enou^, for others, however, there should be copies distributed accord- ing to some <XM>p^tive plan. The participating institutuions would then be free to reduce the r^t of their colections to what may be caled “working Ibraries/^ Adequate data are not yet at hand for defining the limits of such work- ing Ibrari^ in the various scientific fidds, and analyse of the sort receafly undertaken by the Association of Kesearch Libraries are urgently needed. Studies made by this group of the use of chemical periodicals suggest that a reasonable working library covering over W percent of the ordinary chemical laboratory's needs could be main- tained by purchasiog less than half of the available periodical literatxire, Interiibrary croperative plans could take the form of agreem^ts among al librari^ whereby each would attempt to be inclusive in limited fields. This would involve union catalogues on a r^onal and national basis and smoothly organized transportation arrangements. The Committee recognizes that proposals such as this have been quently under study by librarians and that there are many difficulties to be surmounted. F^eral aid for the library system of the country might well have as its central object the strengthening of tiae library of Congress so that it could foster programs of cooperation. Both the Librajy of Congress and the Army Medical library occupy leading positions in their fields. Yet these two Govemmmt institutions stil have to look to private sources for much of their support, specially for projects involving experimentation with new methods. Two foim- dations alone have contributed over half a million dollars to the Library of Congress in the past few years. Before leaving the subject of libraries it may be well to draw atten- tion to an acute though temporary problem brought on by the war. Few, if any, European scientmc pubMcations for the last 5 years have been reaching this country in ^^uate volume. Many important periodicals published are not represented at all and others are avail- able in. only a few librari^ and in broken sets. The end of the war will not bring about a solution to the problem since much of this material was published in reduced editions because of wartime re- strictions on paper and printing. Furthermore, much emting ma- terial has been d^troyed by enemy action. If American librari^ ^e not to show serious gaps in their collections of important foreign periodical literature, it will be necessary to provide funds for repro- ducing much of this material. The funds nec^pry for such a project are entirely beyond private resources, and it is proposed, therefore, that the Government undertake to fill this ne^. B. ABSTRACTING AND TRANSLATING SERVICES One of the most useful tools whereby the sd^tist is enabled to keep up with the flow of publication is the coflection of attracts puUished in several different fields. Their publication is extremely laborious and expensive, involving, as it does, the imding, suinmariz- 113 ing, editing, and printing of all scientific articles published from month to montln At the present time much of this labor is donated by scientists who would rather sacrifice some of their research time than be deprived of this useful service. The existence of these pub- Eeations is a precarious one and financial deficits are frequently encountered. Since the start of the w^ar, many continental publica- tions have not been available for abstracting and a large number of American and British papers have been withheld for security reasons. If, as seems likely, it will not be possible to get this accumulated supply of papers abstracted by persons working without compensa- tion, substantial costs may be expected. With the advent of Russia as an important contributor to science, the problem of translating services becomes acute. Hitherto, most American scientiste have been able to read the languages in which most scientific work was published. Unfortunately, there is little likelihood that many of the present generation will learn Russian in the near future. Translation and republication of important Russian works would, therefore, appear to be necessary and is likely to he very expensive. A study of the problem insofar as it concerns biology is now under way by the editors of Biological Abstracts, and within a period of several months it should be possible to give a reasonably accurate statement of the cost involved. Since such work would benefit not only science generally in the United States but would very likely promote the use of Engl^ in other countries, it seems proper to recommend that the United States Government consider methods by which the cost of such work could be m^t. C. BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND REFERENCE SERVICES The rapid accumulation of scientific publication continually in- creases the problem of keeping up with advances even within a single field. Every year earlier work is obscured by the mass of contem- porary publication. Frequently discoveries have been published in the past which were neglected because their ultimate significance was not apparent at the time. The task of bringing these past dis- coveries to bear on present problems is a difficult one. Searching the indices of a hundred different periodicals for the past severm decades is an almost insuperable task. In some fields, notably medicine, consolidated and cumulative indiees are available; in others the abstracting sources are an aid. For various reasons, however, th^ mechanisms are not wholly satisfactory. For example, the index catalogue of the Surgeon General's Library, which is the only publication attempting to gather tc^ether all medical publication in a single cumulative index, is up to date for only one letter of the alpha- bet in any 1 year. Few other fidds, however, can boast of any cumu- lative catalogue of periodical article. .pother attempt to meet the need is made by the rrference services maintained as a part of librmy service. In theory, these organiza- tions supply lists of publications bearing on particular subjects. In several fidds an adequate job may be done insofar as books or mono- graphs are concemed, but rardy is sufficient attention given to period- ical artides, which are far more important to the scientist. Fu^ot- moie, these service are frequently restricted in practice to older workers of distinguished reputation. The young man who wishes fco be informed about past work is frequently compdled to divert much enei^ which could be better spent in his laboratory. It seems probable that use of cataloguing and sorting devices now avaEable in the form of business machines and the use of microfilm technique might go far to improve present methods of searching the literature and making bibliographies. Other technical advances may be expected further to simplify the problem. Adequate utiliza- tion of technical advance, however, would mean reclassifying all scientific literature for at least the past several decade. In the future this problem could be met by arranging for classification of every article prior to publication according to some prearranged system. Again the Committee wishes to emphasize that it is not equipped to .make specific recommendations in regard to technical library practice. It merely wishes to call attention to the existence of prob- lems which, because of their magnitude and the large measure of centralization necessary for solution, appear to be proper subjects of federal concem. 115 Appendix B ANALYSIS OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH EXPENDITURES Part I RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN A LARGE SAMPLE OF AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES To obtain factual information concerning research expenditures in 1939-40 and an estimate of postwar needs, questionnaires were sent to the 315 coUeg^ and universities accredited by the Association of American Universities. Keplies from 188 institutions were received, giving an over-all cover^e of 60 percent. The coverage among the larger institutions was higher (over 80 percent) than that among the smaller schools. Of the 188 colleges reporting, 125 have organized research programs; the remaining 63 have not conducted research. Table I siunmarizes the returns from the 125 institutions supporting research. Table I EXPENDITURES AND NEEDS OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH Natural Sciences and Engineering Opearating expeaiditiires ^ 1930-4§ Postwar prelects Needs for post- war capital feeiKties > 10 larg^ iagtitetions 25 next in mm Totals, 125 research institutions Estimated totals, 150 research insti- tutions ♦ $9, ^,000 !$16,342,000 7,340,000 19,948,000 21.843.000 *47,716, 000 26.213.000 57,260,000 $36, 105, OOO 49, 854, 000 108, 290, 000 129, 949, 000 1 TMis category indodes aS itecas of researcb eerpeaose coodasive ol buildings and items of maior capital resaardb equipment. * Ttoe figures are estimates by tbe uni¥eisilks of tiielr needs lor capital fecHti^ inAidifig items d malor coital re^ardi equipment and gea^aal MxHatcry fiidlities, without whidi to portwar researdh pitiects eiiTisaged could not be carried on adequately. » <K to |aiLOCM),000 over and above lorewar eipmdteres tot wouM be required to finance these profeote to imlvaraitie® estimate tot they will be able to raise only $7^000, 00© through * ‘normal*’ chaim^ * It was estimated that, o-f the 315 colleges and universities aoeredfted by the Association of Aniwican Univmities, 150 Imve cffgandbed researdi pre^rams in to naturd sdenoes aid €iigmeerto Iteturmwere reedved fitan US of these institutions. We have estimated to totals for » reseSrdi universities by add- ing 20 p&ccmt to eadt category. There are about 150 colleges and universiti^ in the United States that have organist research programs in the natural sciences and engmeering. We have estimated that research expenditure in these institutions amounted to $26,000,000 in 1939-40. Estimates of postwar proj^ts call for annual expenditures of $57,000,000. Al- though this must be r^arded as a very rdu^ approximation, inter- nal evidence from the returns, and am^iliffing statements accompany- ing many of them, surest that if ad^uate funds and personnel ware available the universities would be able to carry out projects of this magnitude. Many of the universiti^, for example, have prepared earful lists of important projects that their stajffs wish to und^ake after the war. P<Btwar estimates for capital facilities were aggregated. They total $130,000,000, but most of them include facinfi^ used jointly for teaching and research. Some of the comments which accompanied repli^ to the question- naires are given below: The great discrepancy between the financial figures for 1939 and for our idteal after the war is easily explainable — and not on the basis that we are hoiking to get some money from the Government. There is just one waj that soientifie research esan prosper and grow apace here, and that is for promising young men to have the time to do it. Therefore, we are certain that if funds broame avail- able either from outside or some gift to the college about which we know nothing at the present time, we should like to use them for a considerable enlai]geineiit m OUT staffs, which would mean that the men promisirg in research mi^t carry only a half-time teaching load This we should hope in its totality would acaoimt to the full time of two or three extra men in each department. The estimates which we have made for the future represent somewhat larw increases over our pre-war expenditures, but they are quite in line with the funds which we have been expending for research in the war years. Our estimate of postwar needs for r^earch are based upon definite informa- tion concerning the research which our departments in the sciences feel they are capable of undertaking and which they want very much to undertake as ao<m as funds are available. AlthoTigh the administration and faculty are giving greats xeoogniiion to the needs of such research, it is apparent that flie state will hardly rise to the occasion with adec|uate appropriations. The university is, therefore, in need of TOnaid«rable support for its research program in the pc^twar period. Research in Small Colleges Quite interesting reports were received from small colleges on their attitudes toward scientific research and their desire to en(X)urag© it. One small but well-endowed college in the East stated that its primary objective is a high quality of undergraduate teaching, and tiiat it considers continued scholarly interest in rmearch ^sen&ai in ord^ to obtain this objective. It has done so, in general, by four different means: (1) Grants-in-aid from a special fund. (2) L^v^ of absence to permit faculty members to work at other imlitiitioiis. (3) The maintenance of a well-equipped machine shop and carpenter shop with exp^ a^istance for the sole use of the sdeoce departments. (4) A liberal purchase policy for instruments that can be used for both 117 mstniction and r^earcb. This resulted in a well-equipped electronics laboratorj at the beginning of the war, which was put to valuable use at once when war broke out. The type of policy outlined is much more liberal in its encourage- ment of research than was found in most of the smaller colleges. It does, however, represent the aims of a considerable number of them, and the adoption of similar policies by others certainly deserves en<x)uragem6nt. Nonresearch Institutions The returns from the 63 colleges that do not have organized research programs were mostly in the form of letters; few attempted to fill out the questionnaires. The replies are of some interest, however, and they suggest that the small liberal arts colleges fall into two definite groups. Some of these schools view themselves as purely teaching institutions and have no interest in developing research programs. Furthermore, a number of them are strongly opposed to federal sub- sidy. The following comment is typical: In general it is my opinion that the Federal Government should not undertake to establish any far-reaching program for the support of research in either public or private colleges or universities. I do not believe such relations can be estab- lished and permanently maintained without involving political control, which has proved so disastrous in Germany and other totalitarian states. On the other hand, many of the smaller colleges feel that they could make important contributions to research, if funds were available to them for that purpose. Of the 63 nonresearch institutions reporting, 25 made statements, of which the following are typical: With adequate funds, we could reasonably expect a much greater devotion to research than obtains at present, for the members of our staff have both the interest and the training requisite for fruitful work. Personally, I believe that if funds were available it would contribute toward the advancement of science to have one or two members of the staff of a liberal arte college engaged in minor projects of research, such as could be carried on satisfactorily with the equipment that such a college has. In developing a program of postwar federal aid to scientific re- search, attention should be given to the potentialities of these schools. To the extent that our sample is representative, at least 40 percent of the small liberal arts college in this country are desirous of conducting research, and are prevented from doing so hy lack of funds. Pait It RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN A SMALL SAMPLE OF LEADING UNIVERSITIES, INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH LAB- ORATORIES AND NONPROFIT SCIENCE INSTITUTES To obtain a detailed picture of research expenditures in natural aji^ce departments, a special investigation was made in 13 leading raiiveraties and institutes of technology thtou^out the country. In each nniv^^, the president was requested to appoint a consult: ant in the natuw sciences to cooperate in securing the necessary infortnation. Inquiries were made wifcli respect to the departments of chemistry, physics and Kology, and of electrical, mechanical and chemical engineering. In those universities which had medical schools, similar inqniri^ were made in the departments of anatomy, physiology, hiocheroistry, and bacteriology. The relevant data were then compared with research expenditure® in 10 of our leading indus- trial laboratories and in 7 nonprofit science institutes. It should be remembered, in assessing the results, that the data were prepared under pr^uro of time. The accounting systems in different institutions differ widely; in some instances, detailed figures could be obtained with relative ease, while in othei® it was necessary to mate some rather crude guesses. University Research Expenditures Time and funds for research varied substantially between depart- ments in the same university and between universities. Anmysis of these variations suggests that much remains to be done if the majority of natural scientists with research interests are to be given the opportunities for r^arch that are available in the most favored departments. Engineering departments, in general, appear to have very meager funds for research, although there are a few notable exceptions. At least two of the engineering schools under considera- tion have undertaken far-reaching expansions in research activity since the year 1940 — expansions not due to the war, and, indeed, impeded by the war. If these are carried through according to present plans, the postwar research picture in th^e institutions will be very different from that for 1939-40. Extraordinary variations are diown in the extent to which direct research expenditures are met from outside sourc^^ — especially grants from industry or the foundations. Many departments dmw more than half of their support from th^e outside sources and some of them get all their funds in this way. Comparisons wcgre made of research expenditures in various uni- versity departments, industrial laboratories and science mstitutes. E:^ens^ were divided into prof^sional salaries and direct oper- ating expenses of r^earch.^ This latter cat^ory included e^en^- tures for equipment, apparatus, technical and r^arch distance, publishing costs associate with r^aarch, etc. A calculatioii was then made of the amount of these direct expenses in relation to pro- fe^ional salaries. The minimum figure in any of the industrial laboratories or mence institutes studied was about forty cents per dollar of prof^ional salary; typical figures are near one dollar, and in certain cases the figure was more than two, or even three, dollars. The highest figures for the university departments — with one or two striking exceptions, such as the chemistry department in mstitution number 8 — are approximately the same as the lowest figures for the industrial laboratories and science institutes. Typical figuree for xmiversity departmente are about twenty cents per dofiar of salary, a^d often are considerably lower. Although it is very difficult to judge, there appeared to be a corre- lation between the research contributions of a uinveraty department and the amount of r^earch a»ssistance made availaMe to its profes- 1 See tai>le H-VI eoiiHOBS^ said sad Vm 3snl X 65944&-»45-- — & 119 sional workers. Ib the institutions and departments less adequately proTided with such support there are man;^ men with research ability whose productivity cmdd be significantly increased by the provision of more adequate research funds. Such funds might be used to diminish heavy teaching loads, which leave many men with little time for research, and to provide essential apparatus and technical a^istaace. Time Devoted to Teaching and Research The universities and engineering schools included in this siuwey rank among the leading institutions of the country. In all of them r^earch is fostered and encouraged, and is considered an important factor in academic promotion. However, the various institutions differ considerably in the relative empha^ given to teaching and research. In a general way the 13 institutions may be said to fall into two groups: In group A, comprising institutions 1, 5, 8, 10, and 13, the teaching load is relatively light, but varies considerably among individuals. For some members of the staff it is moderately high, while for others it is only 2 or 3 hours a week. These institutions are also likely to have some research professors who do no teaching at all. Most mem- bers of the staff are expected to devote more than half of their time to r^arch. Of the five institutions that fall in group A, four are pri- vately endowed. Nos. 1 and 5 are lai]ge universities in which a great deal of r^earch is being actively carried on in all departments. No. 10 is a similar medium-size institution. No. 8 is an institution devoted primarUy to the natural sciences and engmeexing. One very large State university (No. 13) also appears to belong in this category, at least, as regards some of its science departments. Group B (Nos. 2, 4, 9, 11, and 12) is made up of important State universities. The t^cMng load is considerably heavier in this group, averaging around 12 class-room hours per week. Most members of the staff, however, are able to devote about one-quarter of their time to r^earch, and sometimes more. Eesearch professorships involving little or no teaching ^ extremely rare in these universities. Three private institutions (Nos. 3, 6, and 7) appear to lie some- where between groups A and B in r^ard to the relative allocation of time between teaching and research. No. 3 is a large privately endowed university, associated with a large State agricultural school. No. § is an important engineering school. No. 7 is a medium-size liberal arts university. In engineering' deparimefd^t tihe teach^ schedule is generally considerably heavier than in phyrics, <^iemisky and biology; often it runs to 18 class-room hours per we^. In some institutions, however, the teaching sch^ule for engineers is no heavier than in other depart- ments of the university. In the medmd teaching (prewar) was frequent^- concentrated in one 4-month term, during whi<m time the teaching load was fairly heavy; but the remaining 8 monfe commoniy involved Httle or no teadbing. Some institutions deviai^ from this pattern, but, on the whole, mculty members in the medical sciem^s tend to have a large fraction of their time available for resM«r<*. In several institutions the amount of teaming done by men in the lower aead«aic ranks was consid^ably h^hM* than for the full and ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40) Departments of Physics 1 Institution number » 2 Number of professional pereonnel a Number of techaiclans, secretsri®, etc. 4 Salaries Of prof^ional Personnel (thousauds) 5 Total depart- ment budget (thousands) 8 DlrootoiW' fttingeipenaes ofreseardbi) (thousands) 7 Satie col- umn 9 to wlunmi 8 Percent of re- search funds from non- university sources 9 Number of graduate students » 19 Qraduatedepea awarded* M.A. Ph.D, 1 35 16 Hi $169 29 57.6 5.2 7.6 2 26 4 41 54 7.6 .18 93 51 9 90 115 18 .20 47 37 3 6 a 52 92 84. S .38 20 ■EH 12 5 5,..-. 37 7 171 •39 .38 7 ■H 6 6 56 148 245 27 .18 33 56 3 7 18.5 23 30 4 .17 ^■11 14 3 2 8... 39.5 85 141 41 .48 95 68 8 8 9......... 31 1 87 62 9 .24 0 7 2 11 33 54 80 5 35 3 @ 12.... 18 3 27 35 2 ■m 7 2 2 47 13 79 123 IIHIl .88 0 72 4 8 » As follows; I Lar^prlvfttouiilwrally. IrargeStstouJilyerBUy. Large prlTato university associated with large state sploultural school. Large State university. Large private uiilveralty. Large private engineering school, Medium site liberal arts university. Large State university, 10. Medium sl!e private university, 11. Large State university. 12. Meflum site State university. 18. 14rge State university. * Mudee expendltiirei for equipment, ap ..ius, teobnloal and researeli assistance, publtolngooslSBiiocIated with research, fl trips, emedltlons, etc. » Average for the 8 years ending 1039-40. 4 Includes astronomy and physiologlcsd optics, • After deducllag $l(),000 spenl on cyclotron. ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (193^40) Departmcnb of Chemistry 1 Mltulion aumbtff^ 2 Number of professional peraonnol 3 Number of tochnidans, norotaries, etc. i SalwlMof professional personnel (thousands) s ToW depart- ment budget (thousan®) 8 Direct oper- ating expenses of research* (thousands) 7 Ratio ool- umnfito column 4 8 Percent of re- search funds from non- university sources 9 Number of paduate studwits* IB DepciBWMded* M.A. Fb.D. 52 12 $103 $161 $23 0.22 60 133 13 25 % 17 161 181 34 .23 85 108 12 3 8............... 68 7 86 114 13 .15 60 60 9 12 4 109 12 121 171 73 .60 38. 161 21 18 5 82 1 20 194 236 43 .22 53 162 33 19 6., 1 75 173 231 20 .12 10 80 5 18 7.... S2 8 58 88 13 .221 10 20 1 5 8... 59.6 9 76 160 70 .92 83 34 3 5 1.. ,.j 55 2 69 101 11 .16 60 75 15 10 10....... 64 14 65 80 14 .22 61 2 13 11 21 18 126 163 7 124 18 18 12... 39 4 55 77 20 .37 60 ' 38 5 5 13 ^ 48 15 109 208 32 .29 0 45 3 12 » For oxplawtioD of Institutions^ see footnote a, table E » Average for the 3 years ending 1039-40. » Includes expbditures fcr equipment, apparatus, teohiJBal and researdi asslstano(^ * Inoluaes both ohemlstry and chemical engineering, publishing aom assoolated with research, field trips, eipedltions, etc. €3 Table IV ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40) Departments o( Biolosy (Zoolosy and Botany) Several of these departments include physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics, but no medical school departments are included I iMtltutlOE number! 2 Number o( proteionri prsonnol, etc. 8 Number ot technicians, secretaries, eto. illl 5 Total depart- ment budget (thoosends) 6 Direct oper* aliugeipeMflS ofresMTcli* (thoiuands) ill 8 Percent o( re- soarchlun^ fromnon- unlverslty sources 9 Number of graduate studentfi ID Dsgre® awarded* M.A. Pb. D. 52 11 $127 $169.5 $38.5 0.30 1 58 6 12 56 12 96 123 20.7 .22 65 49 9 7 34 10 78 100 10.5 .10 hT 417 113 1,033 2,762 336 .33 !a+3b — 451 123 Ull 2; 862 346.5 .31 Hi 305 36 [... 61 28 126 164 13 .11 60: 127 27 11 L - 34 8 106 129 46 .42 23: 131 26 10 L... 20 2 81 79 8 .13 50; 25 1 1 r 26 I 60 75 2 .04 81 6 4 i 38 2 80 113 28 .35 70 18 1 4 14 3 31 52 11.4 .87 13 10 2 6 ut 60 6 103 128 6 85 16 1 14 1h5 85 20 137 205 18 75 14 13 .2 25 4 39 64 13 .33 100 23 4| 2 L 63 21 88 172 *39 .45 70 45 8* 7 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40) Departments of Anatomy, Pliysiolojy and Bacteriology ANATOMY Number o{ profeisioml psrsoimrf Number of tscbnldans, leoretarleg, eto, Salaries of professional penonml (tbousands) Total depart* mestbttd^t (thoumds) Dlreet oper* atlngospcnses ofimrehJ (thousmids) Ratio col- amn 6 to oolunini Percent of 1^- search funds from non* univtfglty sources Number of gredualB students* 17 5 $48 $61 $16.7 0J8 1 7 17 5 881 60 2.5 .07 10^ 12 11 3 28 33 3 .11 0 U 19 87 145 27 .46 80 7 1§ 8 25 35 0 12 PHYSIOLOGY 20 7 $62 $117 $22 0.35 10 88 6 17 9 46 76 30 .65 55 8 2 11 9 85 74 4 .11 0 9 1 16 9 58 100 40 .69 50 7 0 22 17 $66 BAQERIOLOG^ $26 1 0.46 10 20 6, .12 7.2 .34 «po41tQrN Ictr itWot «Qltl se«footaot?i,tsblalT. ii, uia tipi, KptdftioBi, sLo. i Amip Tor tiu 8 mn aodini lOSS-dO. S^i TaW«VI ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (193N0) Departm«nts of Chemical Engineering and Electrical Engineering CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 1 lEHtltottUl flontoi t Number of proMouftl penoiuKil « 3 Number of technlcluil, eeoretaries, eto. 4 EfllBrlei of proMosl wrsonuel (thoueaudi) 3 Total depart- meat budset (IhoQgaiuu) 8 Direct oper- ating upenesi ofreiearcb* (tbouimdi) 7 Katloool- umnfito column 4 8 Percent of re- Btarchfunds from non- unH'orslty hourcei Number of Rreduatfl lludonli^ 10 Pegrea awarded* M.A. Pb.D. Q 1 117 123 13 0.18 8 2 a 17^ 1 22 28 6 .28 27 11 3 a la 3 57 88 14 .24 75 75 24 6 6. sa 97 152 7.5 .08 80 13 9 9..,,.........,. 14 2 26 36 2 .08 0 30 7 4 10.. a 2 16 20 3.7 .23 6 0 1 11... 10 2 27 49 3 12 4 1 Tb report for Cbinical Engineering m Institution No, 2 is included in lb report for lb Chemistry Dcportmoiil in table III. Table VI— Continued ELEQRICAL ENGINEERING 1 Inslltalioa number » 2 Number of professional personnel 3 Number of tedmldam, seeiiWes, etc, 4 Salaries of proWoml personnel (tnowands) 5 Total depart- ment budget (thousands) 6 Direct oper- allngespenses of regard! • (thousands) 7 Ratio col- umn 6to column 4 8 Percent of re- leareh funds from non- university sources 9 Number of graduate studenta* 10 DspM awarded* M. A. Pb.D. 3 21 2 $61 $60 $1.2 IRIil 6 4 1 1§ 4 39 45 3.4 .09 21 6 1 S 13 3 44 54 .4 ■■Bi 25 10 1 6 ..I 61 176 302 53 ■■in 68 38 3 8.. 12 0 20 241 3.5 .18 40 12 3 12 2 26 32 25 5 4 0 10., 6 3 22 32 5.2 .24 li 2 IL.... 13 6 44 80 ^^■(1 3 1 I For erplanatloii of Inatltuto, goo footaoto a, table IL ‘ Average for the 8 years ending IS39-40, * Uudes arpendltures for equipment, appatatus, teohnloal and research assistance, publlsMnii ssts asodated with iwcb, field trips, expedltlens, eta. Table VII ANALYSIS OF RETURNS ON QUESTIONNAIRES SENT TO INDUSTRIAL LABORATORIES AND NONPROFIT SCIENCE INSTITUTES [1 939 dafa] INDUSTRIAL LABORATORIES 1 Beporting institutions 2 Salaries of professional personnel (thousands) 3 Direct operating aspensesof research i (fclwmsanda) 4 Number of technical research personnel per professioiial individual 5 Eatlo column 3 to column 2 1 » - $253 $124 0.24 0,48 9 1, 225 1, 250 .40 1.02 1, 025 3, 709 1. 04 3,62 3oa 154 .39 .39 610 .50 .47 91 49 .29 .64 380 286 1.89 .76 46 102 .70 223 100 69 ZOO .69 10 - 80 107 t . 13 1.34 NONPROFIT SCIENCE INSTITUTES 1 » $51 0.76 0.45 518 657 2 18 1.07 73 32 .53 .44 4 29 36 . 18 1.24 26 55 1.50 2 12 6 80 .53 ,S2 7 347 483 .76 1. 39 I iBGic^es expeaditures for apparatizs, tedmleal azid res«rdi iwM.khfng costs assayed with iweardi, field trips, expeditions, etc. > I and 7 are farge electrical companies; 2 is a cmnmonkaticsis eompai!^; 3 and lareoEcmnpmies; a a tege and 9 a small dbemical conCmi; 0 ^ a meat-paddng (xsipaoj; 8 is a gkss compmijr aod If ^ a large fiatimacentical firm. X I and 2 are institutions for medical researdi; 3, 4, and 5 lor biobgleal F^eardi; 6 and 7 fw resmrtii M tbe pi^yaical sciences. a^Ksiate professors. In other cases, the amount of teaching was Sctically identical, r^ardl^ of r^ik. Oftei there were niM'ked erenow between one department and anolher in the ^une nni veraty . For instance, the chemiiAy departeeail in one inslitiition reported the r^nlar teaching load in immm per week as: fnl prof^ssor^ 3; i»ociate prof^o-rs, 8; assistant pfofa^rs, l§; inslmoto'm 12. This is an imusnal amonnl of variatiQn with rank. Ills bk)l«^ oepyrte®! k the same institution reported a nnifom %iiiaf€r ^ acad'emte In this particular institution tim dhemistiy depirtoaent appears ^lo have been mndh more estei^vdj ®dowOT tiiiii the other sei®^ departments. 1S7 Appendix 4 REPORT OF -M COMMITTEE ON DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC TALENT TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal 129 Summary 130 IWaoe 1- 13^ 1. Long-term plans - 139 1. The d^irability of and necessity for the proposed plans 139 2. The desirable and necessary extent of the proposed long-term plans 142 3. The recommended long-term plan and means for achieving it_ 143 IL Plans for the near future 150 1. Befieits of scientific and technologies personnel resulting from war and selective-service poHcSes 150 2. Plans for integrated scientific teaming for soldiers and sailors. > 152 3. The importance of quality of instruction in **Army universities' ' abroad. 153 4. The place of the GI Bill of Bights in ameliorating scientific and technologic€d deficits... 154 5. Duties of schools, colleges, universities, and technical schools to returning veterans 155 6 Importance of problem of scientific training of men in armed forces 157 Appendix A. The educational pyramid: studies concerning able students lost to higher education 158 Appendix B. Bata oonceming training of personnel for science and tech- nology 169 Appendix C. Suggested administrative organization, bases of selection, schedule and procedmes 172 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Junk 4, 1945. Dr. Vakn*evar Bush, Director f Office of Scientific Beseurch and Demlopfmnit 1580 P Street NW., Washington^ D, <7. Dbae De. Bush: To assist you in making recommendations in response to President Eoosevelt's letter of November 17, 1944, you assigned consideration of the fourth question in that letter to the following-named committee: Dr. Henry A. Barton, director, American Institute of Physics. Dr. C. Lmor Burdick, special assistant to the prmdent, E. I. du Pont de N^ours & Co. Dr. James B. Conaat, president, Harvard University. Dr. Wateon Davis, dn^tor, Sdencse Sefrvice. Dr. Robert E. Doherty, present, Carnegie Institute of Tech** nology. Dr. Paul E. Elicker, eLKecutive secretary. National Assodation of Secondary Sch(X)l Prindpak. Mr. Famham P. Griffiths, lawer, San Frandsco. ^ Dr. W. S. Hunter, profe^r of psychology, Brown University. Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean, College of Saence, Literature, and the Arts, University of Minnesota. Mr. Henry Allen Moe, secretary general, John Simon Guggen- heim Memorial Foundation. Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director. Institute of Current World Affairs. Dr. Harlow Shapiey, director. Harvard CoE^fe Observatory. Dr. Hugh S, Taylor, dean of the graduate school, Princeton University. Dr. E. B. WEson, professor of vital statistics. Harvard University School of Public Health. Mr. Henry Chauncey and Mr. Lawrence K. Frank are the com- mitteek secretaries. The committee held only two meetings, but there has been <»nstant interchange of materials by mail and we have conferred frequently among ourselves and with others. The report herewith pr^anted is a joint effort and it is ^eed to, both as to content and form, by the whole committee. This result has b^n arrived at, not by compromise, but by study of the relevant facts in the light of the committee mem- bers^ varied experience, and by discussion and agr^ment upon the conclusions to be drawn from those facts in the light of our experience. RespectfuEy submitted, Hbney Allkh Mo®, Chairman, Committee on Diwomry and Developimrd of Semdijic Tedeni. SUMMARY To the question asked of you by President Eoosevelt, ^^Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scien- tific talent in American youth so that the continuing futxire of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the war?”, your committee reports aflSirmatively, stating their considered judgment that an effective program of support from the Federal Government to that end can be organized and, indeed, must be organized in order to assure the continuation of scientific and technological training and research on a scale adequate to the needs of the Nation, in peace or war. There is a long history of support granted by the Federal Government for training and research and it £ our judgment that that type of support needs to be, and can be successfully, extended to provide for those highly talented youth with scientific interests and ability who must be assisted else they will not be able to obtain the scientific and engineering training which they merit and which the good of the Nation requires that they obtain. Our proposals to th^e ends have two phases: I. Ism§4erm aimed at ensuring through the long future an adequate supply of scientists and engineers by discovering and devdoping scientific talent in American youth; and II. Phmfor the immediate future, aimed at making up, in part, the deficits in Mie ranks of scientists and engineers resulting from the war and the Nation's Selective Service policy. L Long-Term Plans Jhe Evidence for Our Conclusions The intelligence of the citizenry is a national resource which tran- se6n(k in importance all other natural resources. To be effective, that int^igenoe must be trained. The evidence shows that many young citizens of high intdligence fail to get the training of which they are capable. The reasons for that failure are chiefly economic and geo^pMcal and can be remedied. provisions, hv scbolardiips and fellowships, are inadequate to meet the needs of mis ^oup, nor will State, local, and private plans for such a^istance, which are now under discussion, be adequate. Our plans, simply,^ are plans^ — as respects science and engineering — lo train for the national wdfare the hottest ability of the youth of the NaMon without regacrd to where it was born and raised and without r^riu^d to the size of the family income. Much of our evidence and many of our condusiom on that evidence are applicable to fields other than science apd engineering; hut our plans, naturally, do not go beyond our mandate to make ' effective plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent in American youth. 13a The Necessary and Desirable Extent of the Proposed Plans Ti^oi^hout our deliberations, we have had it in mind that, by sciioiarsiiips and fellowships and monetary and other rewards in dis- proportionate amounts, too large a percentage of the Nation's high abilny might be drawn into science with a result highly detrimental to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and develop- mei^^ of smentmc t^ent must be related to the other needs of society for high abmty. Since there never is enough ability at high levels to satisty all the needs of om complex civilization for such ability^ we would not seek to draw mto science any more of it than science's share. In that spirit of reasonablene^ our plans are: We recomm^d that each year 6,000 4“year scholarships be awarded to enable youth cu scientific promise to work for bachelor's d^rees in scientific and technological fields. We recommend further that 300 3-year fellowships be awarded each year to enable the recipients to obtain advanced trainmg leading to doctoral d^rees in science and technology . The maximum total of Scholars, if and when the plan is in full operation, would be 24,000 and the maximum total number of Fellows would be 900. Maximum annual costs if the plan is to be realized fully may reach, after the fourth year of operation, $29,000,000. Outline of the Plan and of the Means for Achieving If The Scholars should be chosen by State committees of selection and the Fellows by a national committee of selection. The Scholars shall be eligible for the fellowships but the fellow^ps shall also be open to other qualified students. We recommend that, for the Scholars, the scale of support should he that provided by the GI bill of rights for veterans, namely up to $500 annuaUy for tuition and other fees, plus $50 monthly for personal support if single, and $75 monthly if married. For the Felows, there should be an allowance up to $500 for tuition and other fees and up to $100 monthly for personal support. The Scholars and Fellows should be chosen soMy on the bas» of merit, without regard to sex, color, race, creed, or need. All those who receive benefits under this plan, both Scholars and Fellows, should be enrolled in a National Science Eeserve and be liable to call into the service of the Federal Government, in connecticm with scientific or technical work in time of war or other national emergen^ declared by Congress or proclaimed by thei Fre&i<I«it. Thiw, in addition to the general benefits to the Nation by reason of the addi- tion to its trained ranks of such a corps of sden^w workers, th^ would be a definite benefit to the Nation in haviig tiiese sdanlffic workers on call in national emeigencies, EviteOe preemted to the committee shows that, if such a science reserve had been in in 1940 and had included many of &© b^| fee mobilization of scientific men before Pearl Harbor would have been mu^ more rapid and effective than it was possible to make it. We believe that the obligation undertaken by fee recipients of National Science Eeserve ^^.nolarships and fellomhips would consti- tute a real Quid pro cruo and that the Federal Goveitenent would ^ weU advised to invest the money involved even if feebmefits to the Nation were thought of solely — which they not ^in terms of national preparedness. 131 As m&iif should he the sole b^is of selecting the Scholara and Fel- lows, likewise merit should be the sole basis of their continuing to hold their scholaxships and fellowships — 4 years for the Scholars and a maximum of 3 years for the Fellows. Unless the Scholars and F allows maintain good behavior, good health, and scientific progress in the top quarter of their classes, the assistance they are receiving should be terminated. The quotas of scholarships to be awarded by the State (and Terri- torial) committees of selection should he determined by the number of their se(X)ndary school graduates of the previous year as related to the national total of such graduates. That is, the national total of 6,000 sdbolarships would be prorated to the States in the same proportion as their high school graduates bear to the whole national total of such graduate. We recommend that the establishment of the organization to operate the plan and its supervision be entrusted to the National Academy of Science — the top scientific organization of the country and the one which, through ttie years since its establishment in 1863, has shown itsdf to have the knowledge, int^rity, ability to withstand pressures, and concern for the national welfare, which will be required. II. Plans for the Immediate Future Because Selective Service policte have not taken account of the Nation^s vitd needs for scientists and engineers, the training of men in the fields of science and technology during the war has almost completely stopped. Because of these stoppages, not until at least 6 years after the war will scientists trained for research emerge from the graduate schools in any; significant quantities. Consequently, there m an accumulating deficit in the number of trained research scientists and that deficit wml continue for a number of years. The deficits of bachelor^s degrees in science and technology are already probably about 150,000. The deficits of scientific doctoral degrees — that is, of young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of original work — has been estimated, for the period 1941 projected to 1955, to be more than 16,000. AH patriotic citizens who are informed about these matters agree that, for military security, good public health, full employment, and a h^er standard of living after the war, these deficits are very serious. Neither our allies, nnr our enemi^, permitted any such deficits to devdop but on the contr^ maintained or iucreased national programs for the training of scimtists mid engineers. The feasible remedies in the situation, as we find it now, appear to us to be these: 1. We recommend that the R^earch Board for National Security and the Aimy and Navy find men who, before thrir induction and during their service, have shown promise of scientific ability and that Aey be orda:^, by name, to duty in Hie United States as students for training in mence and eo^heermg of a grade and quality available to civilians in peacetime Tim should be adopted as the considered policy of the armed service and no desire of a commanding officer to retain a potential scientist for his usefulness on the spot should be aflowed to interfere with the operation of the poEcy. ^ Merit should be the sole basis for the selection of th^e studeuts aad merit alone should determine the number selected- We think that probably the total would be no more than 100,OCW and that number, following VE-day, could not be militarily significant. For building up the Nation's scientific strength, however, that number would be very significant. If well sd^ted on their merits as students of science, th^e men would constitute the premium crop of future scien- tists and we know that the future of our country in peace and war depends on that premium crop. Under this proposed plan, be it noted, there would be no disruption of plans aJreaiiy made for the discharge of soldiers from the Army. WMIe studente, their dischai^es would occur in accordance with the already established rating scale. It would not do to propose that such a plan should be done on a volunteer basis — that is, that personnel of the Army and Navy should request orders to duty as students. It would not do because many of the best of them probably would not request such orders, from feelings that they would not wish to be put in the position of seeming to shirk their full patriotic duty. 2. The Army has made plans for setting up in foreign countries, when and where the military situation permits, courses of study for soldiers, including courses in science and technology. These plans are all to the good. The further important thing to ensure is that the courses shall be the best and most up-to-date that can be given. Unless it is to do a disservice to the soldiers taking its training, the Armed Forces Institute must be prepared with instruction that is wholly up to date in its higher levels; but the fact of the matter re- mains that since the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the CaHornia Institute of Technology, the Ryerson Laboratory of the University of Chicago, and others, cannot be moved abroad, the plan for Army universities must be supplemented by what we have sug- gested in our first proposal above. 3. Public Law 346, Seventy-eighth Congr^, commonly known as the GI Bill of Rights, provides for the education of veterans of this war under certain conditions, at the expense of the Federal Govern- ment. Among the returning soldiers and sailors will be many with marked scientific talent which should be developed, through further education, for the national good. However, the 1 year of education which the law provides for essentially all veterans clearly will not be enough to train a scientist nor in most instances to complete training begun prior to entry into the armed forces. The law makes the amount of education beyond 1 year at Government expense depend on length of service rather than on ability to profit from the education. It appears to us that our mandate to set up an effective plan for discovering and developing scientific talent must take into account the scientmc potentialities among the 10,0€0,000 youig Americans now in the armed forces. To th& end, it is recommended that the Veterans' Administration set up an adequate counseling service for those veterans of marked scientific talent and that a complete scientific education at Government expense be provided for a ^up of them selected on the basis of merit and irrespective of the length of their military service. Here, a^in, we believe it best to recommend that standards of scientific ability be the limiting factom rather than to suggest that definite numbers be selected for training. Amendment of the GI Bill of Rights, to make that law an instrument for the 133 amelioratiori of the deficits of scientists resulting from the war and Selective Service policy, seems to us essential for the safety and con- tinued prosperity of the Nation, The adequate handling of the education of the scientific and technologic^ talent now under arms will be a primary test of the effectiveness of the Government in meeting the whole problem to wMch we have been asked to direct our attention. The futtire scien- tific and technical leaders in the United States are now largely in military service. Unl^ exceptional steps are taken to recruit and train t^ent from the armed services at or before the close of the war, the future will find this country seriously handicapped for scientific and technological leadership. In peace or war, the handicap might prove fatal to our standards of living and to our way of life. 134 PREFACE You asked us to advise you upon the fourth question of President Koosevdit^s letter to you concerning future scientific development in the United Stat^. 'ftie qu^tion is: Oaa SM effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during the war? In our judgment the answer to the question is in all respects in the affirmative. We conclude also that program envisaged by the question is both necessary and desirable. The difficult questions are upon the necessary and desirable extent of such a program and upon the best means for its accomplishment. Our report, accordingly, wiH be under three heads: the nece^ity, the extent and the means for making the envisaged program effective. There are, however, some general considerations which we deem it weU to place before you prior to proceedir^ to the body of this report. President Eoosevelt's letter to you looks toward a science that wifi be a decisive element in the national welfare in peace as it has been in war. He said, “New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful enoi' ployment and a fuller and a more fruitful life/^ It is dear that the letter refers to science as the word is commonly imderstood, or, more technically described, to science now witbin the purview of the National Academy of Sciences, that is, to mathematics, the physical and biological sciences includmg psychology, geology, g^>graphy and anthropology and their engineerii^, industrial, agriculturS and med- ical applications. To science in this sense, therefore, the recommend- ations in this report will be limited. The statesmanship of science, however, requires that science he concerned with more than science. Science can only be an effective element in the national welfare as a member of a team, whether the condition be peace or war. As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in mind while examining the question before us — the discovery and development of scientific talent — the needs of the whole nation^ welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would syphon into science and technology a disproportionately large share of the Nation^s highest abilities, without doing harm to the Nation, nor,^ indeed, without crippling science. The very fruits of science become available only through enterprise, industry and ^dom on the part of others as well as scientists. Science cannot live by and imto itself alone. This is not an idle fancy. Germany and Japan show us that it is not. They had fine science; bnt because they did not have govern- ments “of the people, by the people and for the people'^ the world is now at war. Tms is not to say that science is r^ponsible: it is to 135 say, however, that, except as a member of a larger team, science is of limited value to the national welfare. The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and, to a lai^e extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards. When aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically tainted youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships and feEowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate amounts might draw into science too large a percentage of the Na- tion's high ability, with a result highly detrimental to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be related to the other needs of society for high ability: smence, in the words of the man in the street,^ must not, and must not try to, hog it all. This is our deep conviction, and therefore the plans that we shall propose herein wul endeavor to relate the need of the Nation for science to the needs of the Nation for high-grade trained minds in other fields. There is never enough ability at high levels to satisfy all the needs of the Nation; we would not seek to draw into science any more of it than science's proportionate share. Through all ages of civilization far-seeing men and women and gov- ernments have been concerned with the necessity of providing for the leadership of the future, as one essential factor in the survival, or progress, of civilization. Provision for the leadership of the future is nectary because high ability, adventmous talent, is not born only into famili^ that can pay for its development. It is a fact that a large proportion of tie world's best brains and finest spirits have attained or accelerated their development through outside support, of the type that we shotdd call scholarship or fellowship assistance. This is a profound social fact: a l£uge part of the world's leaders in science and other fields of scholarship, in the creative arts, and even in public affairs, has required a financial leg up, while working toward leader- ship. Upon any study of the histoiy of the development of leadership we may be reasonably sure that a laige part of the men and women who in future will lead us in all walks of l£fe will need extraordiaary boosts up the ladder at some stages of their careers — boosts provided by individuals, institutions, and governmental agencies, on the basis of a showii^ of very special ability — ^in the form of scholarships, feUow- shii^, and grants-in-aid. No nation has ever done as wdl as we have in equalizing educational opportunity, nor, probably, in giving the most adequate opportunity to the best; but it can easily be shown, and we shall show it, that we could do better. And we also shall show how we as a nation can do better. Why we as a nation should be conceded to do better appears in the following statement by Dr. Robert Gordon Sproul, President of the University of California — a statement of such cogency and sound common sense that we are glad to adopt it as our own: Ooe of the major responsibilities of the university of the future, is to se^ that the money it spends ^ * goes toward the education of the most worthy candidates in each generation. The intelligence of the citizenry of a nation is a natural resource which transcends in importance all other natural resources * * ♦ 0^ may condone the waste of many natural resources on the ground that science ifffl msae day discover a substitute that is just as good. But intelligence is quite and though lienee search diligently it will never find a substitute for it, nor wffl the war lords. Universities ♦ ^ conservators of the above-average intelligence of the nation * * * Every coniervatlon prc^rain mtiat proceed along two lines: it must safeguard the known reserves of a given resource, and it must also, through exploration and every other means, make a detennined effort to ascertain accurately the further supplies of that resource. We do not know how much intelligence the citizenry of this Nation is capable of producing. We jmy little attention to intelligence unless it forces it^lf to the surface and trickles into a college or university by force of gravity. If it happens to come to the surface in the backwoods area or a rural district, where the process of trickling down to college is made difficult by distance and by lack of funds, the chances are that the trickle will sink into the earth again, “unwept, unhonored, and unsung''; — ^unle^, of course, it happens to be one of the fs^test running, highest-iumping, or quick^t trickles on track, court, or gridiron. Acrom the contineBt from Ihr. Sproul, Dr. James B. Conant, Ptesident of Harvard University and a member of this Committee, coming at the question from anoth^ direction, has made a statement to like effect which his colleagues of the committee woidd adopt as their own: * * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the number of really firsts class men who are engaged in the work in question. If I have learned anything from my experience in Washington as chairman of the National Defense Reroarch Committee, it is that ten second-rate men are no substitute for one first-class man. It is no use pouring second-class men on a problem, even if you are under the greatest pressure for a solution; second-class men often do more harm than good. So in the last analysis, the future of science in this country will be determine by our basic educational policy. And finally we would quote the Board of Regents of the State of New York who recently declared: The need is imperative for enrolling the ablest young people of the State in institutions of higher education. This proposal is defensible not in terms of the desire of the colleges to obtain students. Fundamentally, the case rests on the need of any state to bring its best minds up to a high level of understanding and accomplishments. This statement also we adopt as basic to our thinking. The data which prove the truth of the quoted statements are wdU known and some parts of them are set forth in a Appendix A attached to this report. Here we simply mve samples and it is to be noted that these samples apply not on^ to scientific ability in American youth but to ability generally: An Indiana study published in 1922 showed: If we compare the records made on our t^ts by the group erf seniors reprinting the richest and the poorest homes, we find that there are proportionally more children possessing the highest grades of mental ability among the poor^t class than among the wealthiest class, and more individuals with high average grades of intelligence among the wealthier than among the poorer ^up. The we*dthi«t group ranks high on central tendency. The poorest salanki group ranks low on central tendency and also has a larger percentage of individuals pc»sesring the lower grades of mental ability. But there are inmviduals in this cl^ vrho obtain the highest intelligence rating made by high school seniors. * * ^ It is still more significant that so many erf this mc^ superior group of high- school seniors will not attend college, while those with the most inferior grades of intelligence are planning to attend, in ever increasing numbers. Twenty-five percent of the brightest seniors found in the entire State said they were not plan- ning to attend college at ail, while 65 to 70 percent of the dullest seniors had definitely decided to go to (w>llege, most of them having already selected tim college they expected to attend. In Minnesota, it was shown that the probabiity of collie attend- ance for a high school graduate of high oolite ability who is the son or daughter of a father emjdoyed in a prof^ional or man^eriai 137 group is several times greater than that for the son or daughter of a farmer or unskilled laborer. This study also showed that for every high school graduate who ranked in the upper ten percent of his high ^ool cla^ and enrolled in college, another high school graduate who also ranked in the upper 10 percent did not enter college. A Pennsylvania study showed that, in that State, dividing a sam- pling of the youth of approximately equal high ability into two socio- economic groups, 93 percent of children of the upper socio-economic group were graduated from high school and 57 percent attended college. But in the lower socio-economic group, only 72 percent of the children were graduated from high school and only 13 percent attended collie. As emphasized, this report is concerned with discovering and devel- oping scientific talent, hut in its proper setting and relationship to other needs for talent for the Nation's welfare. In the report we shall suggest, as befits our mandate, the appropriation of Federal funds to be applied only to the purpose of discovering and developing scien- tific talent; but, as we have pointed out, we recognize that there is need for the discovery and development of talent in all lines and we point out that most of the plans and procedures recommended herein for science are equaQy applicable to the discovery and development of talent in other fields. What shall be done with Federal funds for the discovery and develop- ment of talent, scientific and other, in American youth is for the wis- dom of Congress to determine. As taxpayers and as men concerned with the statesmanship of science, we have been deeply concerned with the question how piiis for the use of Federal funds for scientific development may be set up so that Federal funds do not drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and private persons. We think that our proposals will minimize that effect, but, with proper candor, we do not think that our proposals will be com- pletely effective to avoid what we do not want to happen. We think, however, that the Nation's need for more and better science is such that the risk must be accepted. In this report, consoDant with our mandate to make effective plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent in Ameri- can youth, we recommend plans to assist able young men and women to carry their studies from the end of high school though the doctor? ate. Beyond that we do not go in our recommendations, not only because we do not think the word ^^youtb" ought to be stretched to include men and women of post-doctoral age, but also because ypur comonaittees reportmg upon other questions in President Roosevelt's letter 4re making reconEimendations for assistance to post-doctoral inv^lagators. For our part, we are of opinion that the basic problem, at le^t for the next decade, will be to find more young talent and to give it a chance to develop into more first-rate investigators than we now have. That is the problem at which this report aims. At present the op- portunities for education beyond hi^ school are accidental to too large an ^tent — determined by the acdklents of geography and econmnic income. We seek, in this constitutional Republic, as r^pects mence and engiheering, to train for the national welfare the hi^mt ability without regard to where it was born and reared and , without regard to the size of the family income. I. LONG-TERM PLANS 1. Tfie Desirability of and Necessity for tbe Proposed Plans We are convinced that there is no possibility that too much abiEty of the highest order can be discovered^ and devdoped: the needs of our Comdex social organization for brains and character at the high- est level can never be surfeited. Moreover, it is appropriate to point out, when considering the need for scientific training,^ that the first- rate scientist and engineer cannot do his work effectively unl^ he has a few good ones in a secondary role at his disposal as a^istanlB and sometimes a great many as hands and as instruments for the execution of his ideas. We have only to look about us, from the point of view of citizms, to know that the current need for creative brains is not being met: there is too much wrong with the world and with our country to have doubt about that. As scholars and administrators of scholarly affftim we also know out of our own experiences that there is a deficiency in the supply of first-rate scientific workers. All of us know of problems in science whose solutions are urgently needed for individual and collective welfare. The limiting factors, ail along the line, are brains and character. In Appendix A attached to this report, some startling figures are given as to the number of young people who drop out before com- pleting high school. The coimtiy may be proud of the fact that 95 percent of boys and girls of fifth grade age are enrolled in our schools, i but we cannot help hieing concerned with the fact that with each sue- 1 ceeding grade the percentage falls. For every 1,000 students in the fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end of high school has been reached, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before 4 years of college are completed. While this report is concerned pri- , marily with methods of selecting and educating high school graduates at the college and higher levels, we cannot be un{x>ncemed the potential loss of talent which is inherent in the present situation in our primary and secondary schools. The Nation's students may be diagrammed as a P3rramid. At the base of the diagram are the students begiiming the first grade. Ab we keep looking at this body of stedents, they^ drop out more and more rapidly and the sides of the diagram slope in sharply, making a pyramidal figure. ^ . j. Students drop out of grade and high schools for a vanely of reasons. The reasons which concern us in this report are only ^(Be whim relate to the highly talented. Many of these; individuals of grmt promise who are lost in the process are acadepmo msuallies undoubt- edly to be charged against the inadequacy of Ihelocai sMondary ^uca- tion available to them. Studies of the situation in differait States 139 show that the problem is by no means the same throughout the coun- try. The figure that have been given above are the over-all figures for the Nation: in some States the loss is much loss, in others much greater. Unless one were to believe — ^which we do not — that there is a corr^ponding difference in the distribution of native ability among the Stat^, one cannot help reachi^ the conclusion that the differences reflect great variation in the quality of our secondary education. It is not within our mandate to enter into the controversial subject of the way in which a larger amount of public fimds should be expended on sTOondary education in those States where the amount now spent per pupil is very low, and it is surely no coincidence that it is in these veiy Stat^ that we find the losses, from the fifth grade on, to be the great^t. We would be remiss in our duty, however, if we did not point out that much remains to be done to make our educational system effective in developing the latent talent of the Nation by improving the quafity of the secondary schools in many localities so that no boy or girl of talent and promise may be deprived of the proper h%h school education. Among those who drop out before completing high school, both in the States which provide excellent public education and in those which are less advanced in this respect, there undoubtedly are some at least who have potentialities for becoming first-rate scientists and engi- neers, The early discovery of such individuals who have dropped put of the educational system obviously presents peculiar dfficulties. The committee suggests to employee, and to educational, scientific, and labor leaders Siat serious consideration be given to the problems involved in the discovery of such individuals and in getting them hack into educational institutions where their talents can be developed in spite of their lack of complete high school training. Students drop out of high school, college, and graduate school, or do not get that far, for a variety of reasons. The reasons that concern us are only those which relate to the talented and they are (1) that they cannot afford to go, (2) that schools and colleges providing work of interest and up to the level of their abilities are not available locally, and (3) that buriness and industry recruit from among the ablest be- fore they have finished the training of which they are capable. Th^ reasons apply generally, but they apply with particular force to sdmee: 1. The educarionai road to becoming a high-grade scientist is long * and eacpensive, and the families of many able students cannot afford to pay their way. It is of a length at least 6 years beyond high school and it is esxpmsive because, as is evident, no large percentage of science students can get first-rate training in educational institutions while living at home. 2. Students of scientific capability are particularly vulnerable to bad or inadequate mathematical and scientific teaching in secondary school which fails to awaken their interest in science or to give them adequate instruction. Improvement in the teaching of science all along the line is imperative. To become a first-rate scientist it is B^se^ary to get a good start early, and a good start early means good ^ccmdary school ^ience teacl^. No matter how gifted and capable a pei^BL may be. if he is not interested to finish secondaiy school, or diM^aot have the opportunity to complete secondary school, he cannot — as things are — go on to college and to graduate school. 3. R^ruitment from gifted students by business and industry likewise appli^ with particular force to science. A yoi^ man may well find the place in which eventually he will achieve high distinction in industry, following graduation from collie, if his place ought to be, for example, in management or applied science. But if his place, considering his abilities, might be at the top in scientific research, he will he seriously handicapped if he stops his training without proceeding to the level represented by the doctorate, in- dustry and busing cannot afford, as a long-term proposition, to recruit, prior to completion of training, those potential scientiste who appear capable of contributing to fundamental advances or who should M teachers. In tJi© light of the studies made, havir^ r^ard to the facts of the educational pyramid, it clearly is essentM to provide for the mrly schooling of more able students in order that a large mough group will survive to become a larger quota of students of the hi^^t ^ilty at the apex of the pyramid. To increase this small group of es:cep- tionally able men and women it is necessary to mlai^e the number of students of high ability who go to collie. This involve better high schools, provision for helping individual, talented studente to finish high school (primarily, we conceive, rmponsibilities of every local community), and op.i>ortunities for more capable, promising high school students to go to college. Any other practice constitute an indefensible and wasteful utilization of higher education and neglect of oin: human resources. If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably not, write you a plan whereby there might be sdected for training, which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would be scientific leaders and we might not bother about any Ie®er mani- festations of scientific ability. But in the present slate of knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only those young men and women who will give the top future ieaderstop to science. To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of hi^ ability selected for development and then successive sBrnmings of the cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one can select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the lop because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, leader- ship. There are brains and character, strength and health, happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one knows what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus. We think we probably would not, even if we were ad-wise and all- knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific leadership at one stroke. We ttmik as we think because wc are not interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the b^t plan, in this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves. This is the American way ; this is the way the United States has become what it is. ^ e think it very important that circumstances be such that there be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intellectual ambition. We think it very important that every boy and girl shal know that, if he shows that he what it takes, the sky is the limit. Even it be shown subsequently that he has not what it takes to go to the top, he wifi go further than he would otherwise go if there had been a ceiling beyond which be always knew he could not aspire. By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by giving further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of 141 further opportuuitj, by giving the most opportunity to those who sliow themselves oontmually developing — this is the way we propose. This is the Amerioan way; a man works for what he gets. 2. The Desirable and Necessary Extent of the Proposed Long-Term Plans As ^d m tike general preamble to this report, we think that plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent should have a hmit rdated to the needs of the Nation as a whole for trained talent in all activities that are necessary for the national welfare. We tMnk, also as stated? that while we have no fears that too much top ability can be found and developed there is some danger that too many scientists of less than top ability may be trained, thereby debas- ing the currency of scientific training to the point where scientific careers may not look attractive either to the best or to the second best. How to calculate the Nation's future needs for scientists, or to document fully a judgment upon the question, we confess we do not know. But we have some evidence to support what we, at any rate, regard as informed conclusions. This evidence is set forth in Appendix B attached hereto. In summary it shows the following facts germane to this report: i ? ? In the year 1941 there were conferred 53,534 undergraduate degrees in natural science and iu technology. In the last 6 years before the war, the average annual number of Ph.D. degrees conferred in natural science and technological fields was 1,649. For some years to come, as pointed out elsewhere in this report, these numbers must be increased in an attempt to make up for the accumulate deficits in trained scientific and technological personnel caused by wartime interruptions to basic education and specialized training. We nave carefully studied data and indications concerning the Nation's future needs for scientists and technologists as a basis for determining the nece^ary and desirable extent of plans for discovering and developing scientific talent. We have conduded that the best that can be done is to make a practical, executive judgment after consideration of the material; and such a judgment leads us to propose that 6,000 science students annually be selected for assistance in obtaining the bachelor's de^ee. This number we judge to be not too large from any point of view or too small to be effective. Similarly, making an executive judgment upon numbers of students proposed to be assisted annually to obtain doctoral degrees in science, we arrive at the figure 250, plus 50 for medical research doctorates unless your Committee upon the second question in President Roose- velt's letter makes a separate recommendation on fellowships in that field, which we understand is not their present intention. It is not intended that the 50 proposed medical-research pre-doctoral fellow- ships shall be administered nor allocated separatdy but simply that the recommended total number of pre-doctor^ fellowships be increased to 300- The number 250 is arrived at by considering, mter aim, that it would be 10 percent of the prewar average of science doctorates conferred, 165, |dus a number endeavoring to make up some of the science doctoral deficit incurred during the war years when science students, m practically, have been and are nonexistent. Our thinking concerning the added 50 medical research doctorate go^ along the same lin^. Th^e figures, we wish to emphasize, are not provable but equally we wdsh to emphasize they appear reasonable to us. It hstfe been in our thinking throu^out this report that we do not want to inflate or debase the currency of scientific training by artificially stimulating its issuance beyond the Nation’s needs'for such training. Further, we d^ire to emphasize the point that, until we see the look of the postwar world, policies cannot be determined with finality. And, until *polici^ can be determined, alternative plans, and sliding scales wiliini those plans, are the only plans that make sense. We caiMot, as we have said, guarantee that our figure of 6,000 assisted science students in each entering class and 250-300 assisted candi- dates for science doctorates a year are the correct figure for the needed result. We conclude, simply, that they are good figure with which to begin, always provided that they be not frozen and may be changed in the light of experience and as future demands for scientists and need for Federal assistance in training them may he shown. Elsewhere in this report it is recommended that the administrative agency which may be charged with making our proposals operative be charged also with a continuing research function in which studies of opportunities for scientific and technological employment should have a major place. When considering the question whether or not the group of under graduates selected for trainmg under the plan herein recommended be too large, it ought to be remembered that the majority will not go on to research careers but rather to various kinds of engineering practice, plant management activities and to many other kiuds of practical work connected with industry and technological process^. For industries based on highly advanced scientific technique which must be adapted constantly to new scientific discoveries, training in science is essential throughout the management, and while it cannot be said that a man, because he is a good scientist, is therefoife a good manager for such a business, stfll without scientific training, he could hardly function at all. Moreover, for such a business a scientific training is, the business, probably as good a training m any other. Furthermore, in reference to scientific training at the undergraduate level, we quote with approval a statement by a distinguished committee of English scholars, from social, humanistic and science fields, pub- lished by Nuffield College of the University ^of^Oxford: * * * We live in a world in which science lies at the very roots of com- jnunity, and a mastery of scientific thinking grows more and more indispensable for the successful practice of the arts of life. The culture of the modem ^e, if it is to have meaning, must be deeply imbued with scientific ways of thought. It must absorb science, without forsaking what is of value in the older ways or conduces to the understanding of those deeper problems which science by itself is impotent to answer. It is a question, not of substituting a scientific culture for that which has gone before, but of reaching a wider appreciation in which the sciences in their modem development fall into their due place * * 3. The Recommended Long-Term Plan and Means for Achieving It As stated in the preceding section, we propose that the number of undergraduate students of science and technology assisted under the 143 plan shall be 6,000 annually and that the number of assisted doctoral students in the same fields shall be 250 or 800 annually. This would make the 4-year maximum total of undergraduates 24,000 and the 2- to 8-year#maximum total of graduate students 900. Maximum annual costs, if the plan is to be realized fully, may reach, after the fourth year of operation, §29,000,000. It is our idea that these highly selected students, if they proceed to doctorate, in many cases will be able to obtain that degree after 6 years of undergraduate and graduate work; but pro vision should be made for those who require 3, instead of 2, years of graduate work. In this connection, we wish to emphasize the responsibility of edu- cational institutions in this plan, under the central purpose of ^ the — to provide scientific training for students of superior ability and equal opportunity to aU American youth to qualify in competition for such training — educational institutions wiU face the obligation of providing a training commensurate intellectually with the superior ability of this special group. The Committee believes that a pro^am which is appropriate for the rank and file of college students will not be appropriate for these, or other, highly selected individuals. It appears to us that the scale of support for the undergraduate students selected under the proposed plan should be that provided by Congress under the so-called GI Bill of Eights, namely, tuition and other fees up to $500 annually and, for person^ support, $50 a month during the months of each year when the scholars actuaEy are engaged in full-time study. Benefits under the plan should not be restricted to young and recent secondary school graduates but should be available also to those who, having worked in business and industry, desire to obtain scientific training at the college level. Such Scholars, it married^ should receive, as also provided in the GI Bill of Eights, $75 monthly for support when engaged in full time study. Persons who receive benefits imder the plan should be selected solely 0% the basis of merit, without regard to sex, race, color, or creed. The question whether or not financial need should be considered as a factor in awarding benefits under the plan has been the subject of much study, consultation, and thoughtful consideration by the Committee. We conclude that need should not he a factor in the awards, for many reasons, among which are that, if need is to be considered, th^e would be required a means test of the parents, difficult if not impossible to administer with equity; those who receive benefits under the plan would be labded as poor; and in cases where parents were not sympathetic to higher education their children might be cut off from the benefits of the plan. Moreover, we consider that, apart fiom and in addition to the general benefits to the Nation flowing from the addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, the*e should he a definite and stated quid fro quo from the bkieficiaries to the Nation. Hence, we propose that the beneficimes under the plan should constitute a National Science Eeserve, with definite and stated obligations to the Nation for scientific work similar to the obligations of members of the Army and Navy Eeserves for service of the kind for which they have been prepared. We suggest that recipients of under^aduate ^hoIarsMps under the proposed plan be known as National Science Eeserve Scholars and that 144 recipients of pre-doctoral fellowsMps be called National Science Reserre Fellows, ^ «*«*juuuuutg XV/X' .^co^cAux H ut^ee snould be based upon t^ts of ability and aptitude to ensure that the successful candidates will be oriented to scientific and technolorical pursuits. Moreover, acceptance of the Scholar- ships and Fmowrships should be understood by the recipients as inmcating intmtion to engage prof^sionaJly in scientific and tech- nological work but not as constitutic^ an ab^lute obligation to do so. We recommend that the recipient of a National E^erve Scholarship or Feflown^p shall agree that, upon the completion of his under- gr^uate or graduate training, he sh^ be enrolled in the National Science E^rve and be liable to call into the service of the F^®rai Government, in connection with scientific or technical work in time of war or of a national emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed by the President — the conditions of employment and the smary to be determined at that time by the Pr^ident. This call would be at the option of the Federal Government, It is contemplated that, in cases where men had not for years been engaged in scientific or technical activities, the Government probably w'ould not exercise the right of call. In addition to the binding obligation to serve the Government {if called) full-time in case of war or a national emergency, the members of the reserve should pledge themselves to render distance to the Government in time of peace, through service on advisory committees and on a consulting basis insofar as they are able to do so without gitm interference with their professional work or the rendering of effective service to their employers. We believe that the proposed National Science Reserve would be of real service to the N ation. Evidence printed to the Committee shows that, if such a science reserve had been in existence in 1940 and had included the best scientists, the mobilization of scientific and technical men to assist the Army and the Navy (directly and through C^RD), before Pearl Harbor, would have been more rapid and effective thMi it was possible to make it. We believe that the obligation undertaken by the recipients of National Science R^rve scholarships and fellow- ships would constitute a real quid fro quo and that the Federal Govern- ment would be well advised to invest the money mvolved even if benefits to the Nation were thought of solely — ^which they are not- in terms of national preparedness. The exact extent and duration of the obligation to serve, a^umed by members of the National Science Reserve, of course, would he for the wisdom of Congress to determine in relation to the needs of the Nation and to the obligations of graduates of the Military and Navdl Academies, of members of the Aimy and Naval Reserves and indwd of all citizens in time of war or other national emergency. ^ It is agreed by the Committee in respect to the administration of the National Science Reserve scholarships that whde the plan must be national in character, the principle of local administration must he recognized. The American scene which looks rather unMorm from any one place has infinite variety and intense individuality at dose ra33ge. This must be recognized. Our plan for the selection of National Science Reserve Smolam is set forth tentatively m Appendix C attached hereto. In brief it is this: 145 The 6,000 proposed scholarships should be assigned to the States ^ on the basis of the number of their secondary school graduates of the previous year as related to the national total of such graduates. On the basis of the 1939-40 figures, State quotas of scholars would be as steted in the following table: _ , Secondary school State quotas: State graduates 3 scholarships A 80 3, 498 17 - 12, 226 60 __ 72, 301 356 - 11, 900 59 - - 17, 614 87 2, 353 5, 278 12 nfsttricft of Coliiijnfoiflr _ , . 26 Wloriria _ _ 12, 666 62 .. - 18, 302 90 Idaho 6, 815 34 TlllTlofR - 75, 508 372 TnrimnA , 37, 470 184 Iowa 30,671 23, 326 151 ’K’finiKfl.R _ 115 K'^»T»+iicky 17, 675 87 Hiouisiana 17, 405 86 MAinA __ 8, 485 42 Marylft/nd _ _ 13, 016 64 M as®ac^iisetts 46, 830 231 Michigan 44, 522 30, 337 13, 979 33, 343 6>617 17, 970 S 1, 005 219 Minnejfiota . 149 Missfesippi 69 Missouri 164 Montana- - ■ 33 Nebraska 88 Nevada 5 New TTampahire 4, 670 39, 973 23 New J<^rsey 197 New Mexico - 3, 745 18 New York 117, 901 30, 372 580 North CaroHna 150 North Dakota 7, 182 73, 616 23, 467 13, 002 99, 351 5,978 12, 687 8, 059 35 Ohio 362 Oklahoma 116 Oregon 64 Pennsylvania 489 29 Rhode Island • South Carolina 62 Soufe Dakota 40 Tenne^ee 17, 857 56, 348 8,212 3, 130 88 Texas 277 Utah- 40 Vermont _ 15 100 Virgmia 20, 263 Washington 21, 170 104 87 165 16 W^ Vn^inia . 47,571 33,464 3, 213 Wisconsin Wyoming Totals 1,218,545 5, 999 * It IS intended that the proposed scholarships shall be available also to secondary school graduates in th® TemtoriK and Insular Possessions but we have not statistics relating to them comparable to those for the Stat« and for the District of Columbia given on this page. Allocation of scholarships to the Territories and Izus^ir PossessHMs^ of course, would decrease the State quotas. h^h school gts^tuates 1^9-40 plus of the private and parochial secondary sdbool enroHment. Statistics of State School Syst^ns, 1939HtO. 1941-42, Biennial Survey of Education, XJ. S. Oflice of EducatioB- It is recommended that, for the National Science Reserve Scholars, the administrative organization, the bases of selection and the pro- cedures be as follows in brief: Proposals for a ‘^National Scientific Research Foundp-tion’^ are under discussion by your Committees and amon^ the proposed powers of such a foundation is power to contract with other agenci^ for the performance of functions within the scope of the foundation. It would be our recommendation that the foundation, or any similar organiza- tion which may be established, should make arrangemente for choosing SchoIfflB and FellowB under the pro|^sed plan through the Nation^ Ai^dbny of Science, if that or^oiization be willing to accept the respoMibility. The operation of the plan, we recommend, should be etttosted to the Academy's operating agency, the National Research Council. More precise details of the National Academy's participa- tion and the ineans by which it is suggested that operations be carried on are stated in Appendix C. To ensure the fairest, most effective and most up-to-date methods of selection, advisory bodies expert in such matters must be set up. No existing national science organization has shown itself to be as well-equipped for such advisory functions — working both with non- members of the academy and with members — as the National Academy has shown itself to be through the years. A central administrative staff, chosen for ability and integrity, also must be set up. As outlined in Appendix C,5committees of selection would be set up in each State. These committees, it is su^ested, should consist of five members, to wit: three scientists, one of whom should serve as chairman; one member of a college or university faculty, trained and experienced iu the field of selection and guidance; and one repr^ent- ative of secondary education within the State, usuaEy a se<x>ndary school principal or a high school supervisor in the State department of education. At least one of the scientists, it is sxiggested, should be from agriculture or from industry within the State. The admmistrative staff of the national over-all oa^animtion, in cooperation with the advisory bodi^, would prepare tests in accord- ance with the best thought upon such matters. These tests would be given to all applicants throughout the country and the t^t reporte would be sent to the national organization for evaluation. The national staff also would collect other relevant data and judmaits concerning each applicant and npon the basis of the tests and otb^ material would certify to the State Committees a number of qudi- fied candidates equal to twice the State's quota — it being provided, however, that no applicants shall be certified who do not attain a certain minimum national standard. The dossiers of th^ c^di- dates would be sent to the State committees and those committ^ would have the responsibility of making the final selections of the Sdiolars up to the number of the State's quota. The machinery and procedure for administering these s<diolar^ps are outlined only in general terms at this time. It is die« that valid methods for selecting students of high ability are availaMe m the experience of persons and organizations which have been working on this problem for many years. Doubtless better methods win be available in future and the methods adopted for the National Science Reserve scholarships should be the best available at the time tiiey are being used. 141 OoBceming BoacMneiry for administratioii of the National Science Reserve FellowsMps, we be brief: They should be administered nationally as the National Research Ckjnnml Fellowships are administered.. Whether or not a “National Scientific R^arch Foundation'^ or similar body be ^tablished, we judge that the National Research Council of the National Academy of odenc^ would be the best agency to administer the proposed National Science Reserve Fellowships; for the National Rese^ch Council has shown that it has the know-how and integrity to adminis- ter weE a Fellowship program on a national basis. It should be noted that we propose that the fdlowships (as distinct from the scholarships) diould be awarded on a national, not a State, basis. For the National Scientific Reserve Fellowships as for the scholar- dhij®, the sole basis of selection should be merit, without regard to sex, race, color, creed, or need. It is recommended that fellowship (as distinct from scholarship) stipends should be fixed by the awarding agency on a scale up to $100 monthly, plus payments for tuition and other fees up to a maximum of $500 annually. Throughout the whole plan, for both scholarships and fellowships, there should run an insistence upon high-grade work by the holder, otherwise the fellowship or scholarship shall be terminated by the awarding agency. Scholarships shall be tenable for 4 academic years or the equivalent. Fellowships shall he tenable for the duration of graduate studies lead- ing to the doctoral degree, up to a maximum of 3 academic years or the equivalent. Both shsil be held upon the following conditions: (a) Continuance of good health. (&) Continuance of good behavior. (c) Scientific progr^ at the level of the best 25 percent of former students in the scientific departments primarily concerned. If a Scholar or Fellow drops out for failure or other reasons, his scholarship or fellowship should lapse. Alternates should not he appointed. The scholarships and fellowships should be valid for any college or university, within the territory of the United States, of the holder's (ioice, subject to the advice and consent of tJie awarding agency concerning rdevant facilities for scientific work. With the consent of ihe awarding agency, a Scholar or Fdlow may change the location of Ms work to another college, university or technical school which is judged to be better suited to his scientific ctevelopment. National ^ence Reserve Scholars should be eligible to appoint- ment as National Science Reserve Fellows, but appointments to the fdlowdhips should not be restricted to the Nation^ Science Reserve Schcdars. The fellowships should be open to competition from Ml pre-doctoral science students. It is recommended that the award of the scholarsMps and of the fdlowships be commenced simultaneously, or approximately so, to the full annual number in each category. The Cbnamittee recommenck that the National Agency in charge of the ^darsMps and f^owships should carry on continumg research into methods of selection and continuing study of unfolding oppor- tunities (and tl^everse) for employment in science and tSnMogy. Among ^ective means for the discovery and development of scim- tific talent in American youth are means for developing public interest in science. It will not be sufficient, if science is to remain healthy in root and branch, merely to develop a large number of scientists and to provide them with the financial support necessary for their investiga- tions. There is also the necessity of creating a better xmderstandu^ of the role and place of science in our national life, so that public approval and support for the future development of science be forthcoming. II. PLANS FOR THE NEAR FUTURE The preceding sections of this report propose plans for the discovery and devdopment of scientific talent in American youth as a long-term proposition. There is, however, an immediate and pressing problem which is a result of the war. 1. Defidfs of Sdentific and Technological Personnel Resulting From War and Selective Service Policies The training of men in the fields of science and technology during the war has almost completely stopped. With the exception of some 24(>0 men on the reserved list who have been taken from their studies for civilian war research, all physically fit graduate students have been taken into the armed forces. College students majoring in the sciences have also been taken into the armed forces. Those ready for college training in the sciences have not been permitted to enter. Because of these curtailmente, it will require at least 6 years after the war ends before scientists trained for research will emerge from the graduate sdhioofa in any significant quantity. Consequently there is an accu* mulating deficit in the number of trained research scientists. That deficit continue for a number of years. The deficits in science and technology students who, but for the war, would have been granted bachelor^s degrees in these fields are probably already about 150,01)0. The deficits, in science and technology, of doctoral degrees — that is, of young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of carrying on origiml work — ^have been calculated by the imerican Institute of Physics, as follows: Deficit ac- cumulated ! 1941 through j 1944 Estimate : deficit 1946 Total 1941 through 1945 Probable defi- cits 1946 through 1955 Total prob- able deficit due to war 1941 through 1955 Chbmibtey 240 650 790 ENOIHBBaiNG 148 82 230 960 Gboloot - 63 50 113 317 430 Mathematics 161 100 261 939 1, 200 Physics 251 160 411 1, 589 2,000 PSYCHOLOCY-« Biological Sci- 96 84 180 550 730 ences 665 725 1, 390 4, 910 6, 300 Totals 1,624 ! 1, 751 3,375 13, 495 16, 870 All patriotic citizens, who are weU-informed on these matters, agree that, for military security, good public health, full employment 150 and a higher standard of living after the war, these deficits are veiy serious. In a recent radio address Dr. Arthur H. Compton, Professor of Physics in the University of Chicago and Nobel Prize winner, said: It takes at least 6 years for a capable 18-year~old to train himself for effective scientific research. Even if we should start now to r^ume such training, it will thus be at least 6 years before a normal supply of young profe^ionals will again be available, to our laboratories. Can we afford to wait any longer? Admiral J. A. Purer, Coordinator of Research and Development, United States Navy Department, has said: I want to mention the great personal interest that the Secretary of War, Mr. Stimson, and the Secretary of the Navy, Mr. Forrestal, are taking in pc^twar military research. There is a growing belief that important as it may be to maintain after the war ground forces, air forces, and sea forces of a size commen- surate with our national responsibilities, it may be even more important to keep the weapons and the material in general which we supply to these forces in step with the advances of science. Stocking our arsenals with the weapons of this war is no guarantee that we can win the next war with them. In fact, that may be the quickest way of losing the next war. It would be wiser to maintain arsenals of only modest size whether we are.speaking of ships or guns or aircraft and to use the money saved thereby to continually replace the old thin^ with the new creations of the research laboratory and of American inventive genius. Our industry should be kept alert to begin quickly the production of the va^ quantiti^ of materials needed when war threatens; and this readiness should concern it^If especially with the new things. We hope for your aid in supporting this pcwsition among those who are engaged in research. Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Secretary of the American Chemical Society, wrote President Roosevelt: American technology has given birth to the greatest ^wer of all time. Today, we are drying up prosperity at its source. Public opinion of the future will view with amazement the waste of scientists in World War n * ♦ * Our children and our grandchildren will not forgive the loss of an entire generation of scientists. Dr. Charles Allen Thomas, director of the Monsanto Chemical Company’s research laboratories, declared: Scientific suicide faces America unless immediate and adequate steps are taken to train replacements for technical men going into the armed services. Statements of this type are fairly representative of the thinking of informed men in the armed services and in civilian life. The situation, in brief, is that since the passage of the Selective Service Act in the autumn of 1940, there have been practically no students over 18, outside of students of medicine and engin^ring in Army and Navy programs, and a few 4-F’s, who have followed bjx integrated scientific program in the United States. Neither our allim nor, so far as is known, our enemies have permitted any such condition to develop; but on the contrary have maintatned or increased national f)rograms for the training of scientists and technologists. It tak« at east 6 years for a capable 18-year-old person to train hims^ for effective scientific research. Having regard to this long period of training and on the basis of prewar figures showing botih. the number of students of physical science in graduate schoms and of doctoral degrees then conferred, the accumulating deficit of scientists has bron calculated, with the results already presented. ^ That these defidts are a serious matter for the welfare of the Nation be the condirion peace or war, is agreed. What are the feasible remedies? Proposals to change the policy of draft hoards to the end tiiat stu- dents of science and technology shall not be drafted are too late. The 151 damage has been done: these students already are in the Army and Na¥y, cut off from integrated scientific and technological training. Proposals for their early discharge from the Army and Navy are not feasible. The Army has made its plans for the discharge of personnel as soon as feasible in accordance with a rating scale conceded to be fair and res^nable from the standpoint of the individual GI — ^how- ever it may disregard the risk to the Nation's scientific strength. Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent in Ameri-